tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-60417843667593948072024-03-13T11:34:01.594-07:00Work in Prgrsthis blog is strickly for MBA student.OK?कविताhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00210732358968428325noreply@blogger.comBlogger14125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6041784366759394807.post-12542234397188902042007-09-15T10:38:00.000-07:002007-09-15T11:05:45.739-07:00General Motors Corporation<div style="text-align: justify;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtS8FNCT0vnmi2U9Q_hYwh0x19Erz6MouBvoWcjyYkyCFJ1R3cT6ixcibUu0WTYrRpOFXmPmXauk81VfFyEc_eA2a_FCjjR0UGVKmBS6m3RYYfv0LuWVZHRrHJ36ZBLAeKH2Nlx05YkPg-/s1600-h/clip_image001.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtS8FNCT0vnmi2U9Q_hYwh0x19Erz6MouBvoWcjyYkyCFJ1R3cT6ixcibUu0WTYrRpOFXmPmXauk81VfFyEc_eA2a_FCjjR0UGVKmBS6m3RYYfv0LuWVZHRrHJ36ZBLAeKH2Nlx05YkPg-/s400/clip_image001.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5110492346217646322" border="0" /></a><br /> </div><h1 style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">General Motors<o:p></o:p></span></i></h1><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><table class="MsoNormalTable" style="width: 362.25pt; text-align: left; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px;" border="0" cellpadding="0" width="483"> <tbody><tr style=""> <td colspan="2" style="padding: 0.75pt; width: 359.25pt;" width="479"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">General Motors Corporation</span></i></b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td colspan="2" style="padding: 16pt 0in; width: 359.25pt;" width="479"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Gm2.jpg" title="GM logo"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shapetype id="_x0000_t75" coordsize="21600,21600" spt="75" preferrelative="t" path="m@4@5l@4@11@9@11@9@5xe" filled="f" stroked="f"> <v:stroke joinstyle="miter"> <v:formulas> <v:f eqn="if lineDrawn pixelLineWidth 0"> <v:f eqn="sum @0 1 0"> <v:f eqn="sum 0 0 @1"> <v:f eqn="prod @2 1 2"> <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelWidth"> <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelHeight"> <v:f eqn="sum @0 0 1"> <v:f eqn="prod @6 1 2"> <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelWidth"> <v:f eqn="sum @8 21600 0"> <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelHeight"> <v:f eqn="sum @10 21600 0"> </v:formulas> <v:path extrusionok="f" gradientshapeok="t" connecttype="rect"> <o:lock ext="edit" aspectratio="t"> </v:shapetype><v:shape id="_x0000_i1028" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="GM logo" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Gm2.jpg" title=""GM logo"" style="'width:120pt;height:120pt'" button="t"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\MSOFT\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtml1\01\clip_image001.jpg" href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Gm2.jpg/160px-Gm2.jpg"> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/MSOFT/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtml1/01/clip_image001.jpg" alt="GM logo" shapes="_x0000_i1028" border="0" height="160" width="160" /></span><!--[endif]--></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="padding: 0.75pt 9pt 0.75pt 0.75pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: right;" align="right"><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Types_of_companies" title="Category:Types of companies"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Type</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p> </td> <td style="padding: 0.75pt; width: 257.15pt;" width="343"> <p class="MsoNormal"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">Public (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Stock_Exchange" title="New York Stock Exchange"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">NYSE</span></a>: <a href="http://www.nyse.com/about/listed/lcddata.html?ticker=GM" title="http://www.nyse.com/about/listed/lcddata.html?ticker=GM"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">GM</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="padding: 0.75pt 9pt 0.75pt 0.75pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: right;" align="right"><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">Founded<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p> </td> <td style="padding: 0.75pt; width: 257.15pt;" width="343"> <p class="MsoNormal"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">1908<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="padding: 0.75pt 9pt 0.75pt 0.75pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: right;" align="right"><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">Headquarters<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p> </td> <td style="padding: 0.75pt; width: 257.15pt;" width="343"> <p class="MsoNormal"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" title="Flag of the United States"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="Flag of the United States" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" title=""Flag of the United States"" style="'width:16.5pt;height:9pt'" button="t"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\MSOFT\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtml1\01\clip_image002.png" href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png"> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/MSOFT/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtml1/01/clip_image003.gif" alt="Flag of the United States" shapes="_x0000_i1025" border="0" height="12" width="22" /></span><!--[endif]--></span></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit" title="Detroit"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Detroit</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michigan" title="Michigan"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Michigan</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA" title="USA"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">USA</span></a><br /> manufacturing facilities in 30 <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">U.S.</st1:place></st1:country-region> states and 33 countries<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="padding: 0.75pt 9pt 0.75pt 0.75pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: right;" align="right"><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">Key people<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p> </td> <td style="padding: 0.75pt; width: 257.15pt;" width="343"> <p class="MsoNormal"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rick_Wagoner" title="Rick Wagoner"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Rick Wagoner</span></a>, Chairman & <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CEO" title="CEO"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">CEO</span></a><br /> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_A._Lutz" title="Robert A. Lutz"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Robert A. Lutz</span></a>, Vice Chairman<br /> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Henderson" title="Frederick Henderson"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Frederick Henderson</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Financial_Officer" title="Chief Financial Officer"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">CFO</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="padding: 0.75pt 9pt 0.75pt 0.75pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: right;" align="right"><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry" title="Industry"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Industry</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p> </td> <td style="padding: 0.75pt; width: 257.15pt;" width="343"> <p class="MsoNormal"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automotive" title="Automotive"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Automotive</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="padding: 0.75pt 9pt 0.75pt 0.75pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: right;" align="right"><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_%28business%29" title="Product (business)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Products</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p> </td> <td style="padding: 0.75pt; width: 257.15pt;" width="343"> <p class="MsoNormal"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile" title="Automobile"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Automobiles</span></a><br /> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine" title="Engine"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Engines</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="padding: 0.75pt 9pt 0.75pt 0.75pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: right;" align="right"><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revenue" title="Revenue"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Revenue</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p> </td> <td style="padding: 0.75pt; width: 257.15pt;" width="343"> <p class="MsoNormal"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Green_Arrow_Up_Darker.svg" title="Green Arrow Up Darker.svg"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1026" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Green_Arrow_Up_Darker.svg" title=""Green Arrow Up Darker.svg"" style="'width:7.5pt;height:7.5pt'" button="t"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\MSOFT\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtml1\01\clip_image004.png" href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Green_Arrow_Up_Darker.svg/10px-Green_Arrow_Up_Darker.svg.png"> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/MSOFT/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtml1/01/clip_image005.gif" shapes="_x0000_i1026" border="0" height="10" width="10" /></span><!--[endif]--></span></a>$207.349 billion <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._dollar" title="U.S. dollar"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">USD</span></a> (2006)<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_note-1#_note-1" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[2]</span></a></sup><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="padding: 0.75pt 9pt 0.75pt 0.75pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: right;" align="right"><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Net_income" title="Net income"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Net income</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p> </td> <td style="padding: 0.75pt; width: 257.15pt;" width="343"> <p class="MsoNormal"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Red_Arrow_Down.svg" title="Red Arrow Down.svg"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1027" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Red_Arrow_Down.svg" title=""Red Arrow Down.svg"" style="'width:7.5pt;height:7.5pt'" button="t"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\MSOFT\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtml1\01\clip_image006.png" href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Red_Arrow_Down.svg/10px-Red_Arrow_Down.svg.png"> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/MSOFT/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtml1/01/clip_image007.gif" shapes="_x0000_i1027" border="0" height="10" width="10" /></span><!--[endif]--></span></a>$1.978 billion <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._dollar" title="U.S. dollar"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">USD</span></a> (2006)<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_note-2#_note-2" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[3]</span></a></sup><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="padding: 0.75pt 9pt 0.75pt 0.75pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: right;" align="right"><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employment" title="Employment"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Employees</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p> </td> <td style="padding: 0.75pt; width: 257.15pt;" width="343"> <p class="MsoNormal"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">284,000 (2007) <sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_note-0#_note-0" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[1]</span></a></sup><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="padding: 0.75pt 9pt 0.75pt 0.75pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: right;" align="right"><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Website" title="Website"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Website</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p> </td> <td style="padding: 0.75pt; width: 257.15pt;" width="343"> <p class="MsoNormal"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://www.gm.com/" title="http://www.gm.com/"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">www.gm.com</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> </tr> </tbody></table><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> General Motors Corporation</span></i></b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">, also known as <b>GM</b> or <b>The General</b>, an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">American</span></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multinational_corporation" title="Multinational corporation"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">multinational corporation</span></a>, is the world's largest auto company by annual production volume for 2006, and the second largest by sales volume as of the first half of 2007, behind <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyota_Motor_Corporation" title="Toyota Motor Corporation"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Toyota Motor Corporation</span></a>. <sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_note-3#_note-3" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[4]</span></a></sup> Founded in 1908, in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flint%2C_Michigan" title="Flint, Michigan"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Flint, Michigan</span></a>, GM employs approximately 284,000 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People" title="People"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">people</span></a> around the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World" title="World"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">world</span></a>. With global headquarters at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_Center" title="Renaissance Center"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Renaissance Center</span></a> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit%2C_Michigan" title="Detroit, Michigan"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Detroit</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michigan" title="Michigan"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Michigan</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">USA</span></a>, GM manufactures its cars and trucks in 33 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Countries" title="Countries"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">countries</span></a>. Their <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe" title="Europe"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">European</span></a> headquarters are based in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zurich%2C_Switzerland" title="Zurich, Switzerland"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Zurich, Switzerland</span></a>.Their <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holden" title="Holden"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Holden</span></a> headquarters are in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melbourne" title="Melbourne"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Melbourne</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_%28Australia%29" title="Victoria (Australia)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Victoria</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia" title="Australia"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Australia</span></a>. In 2006, 9.18 million GM <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cars" title="Cars"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">cars</span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trucks" title="Trucks"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">trucks</span></a> were produced globally under the following brands: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buick" title="Buick"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Buick</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadillac" title="Cadillac"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Cadillac</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet" title="Chevrolet"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Chevrolet</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GMC_%28General_Motors_division%29" title="GMC (General Motors division)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">GMC</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holden" title="Holden"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Holden</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hummer" title="Hummer"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Hummer</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opel" title="Opel"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Opel</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontiac" title="Pontiac"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Pontiac</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saab_Automobile" title="Saab Automobile"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Saab</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn_Corporation" title="Saturn Corporation"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Saturn</span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vauxhall_Motors" title="Vauxhall Motors"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Vauxhall</span></a>. GM is the majority shareholder in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GM_Daewoo" title="GM Daewoo"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">GM Daewoo Auto & Technology Co.</span></a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">South Korea</span></a> and has had collaborative ventures in technology and manufacturing with several of the world's automakers. It has ventures with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Automotive_Industry_Corporation" title="Shanghai Automotive Industry Corporation"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Shanghai Automotive Industry Corporation</span></a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" title="China"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">China</span></a>.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">GM Parts and accessories are sold under <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GM_Performance_Division" title="GM Performance Division"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">GM Performance Parts</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GM_Goodwrench" title="GM Goodwrench"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">GM Goodwrench</span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delco_Electronics" title="Delco Electronics"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">ACDelco</span></a> brands through GM Service and Parts Operations which supplies GM dealerships and distributors worldwide. GM engines and transmissions are marketed through <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GM_Powertrain" title="GM Powertrain"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">GM Powertrain</span></a>. GM's largest national market is the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">United States</span></a>, followed by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" title="China"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">China</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada" title="Canada"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Canada</span></a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">United Kingdom</span></a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany" title="Germany"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Germany</span></a>. GM half owns a finance company, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Acceptance_Corporation" title="General Motors Acceptance Corporation"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">General Motors Acceptance Corporation Financial Services</span></a>, which offers automotive, residential and commercial financing and insurance. GM's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OnStar" title="OnStar"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">OnStar</span></a> subsidiary is a vehicle safety, security and information service provider.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><o:p> </o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><o:p> </o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><table class="MsoNormalTable" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px;" border="0" cellpadding="0"> <tbody><tr style=""> <td style="padding: 0.75pt;"> <h2><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">Contents<o:p></o:p></span></i></h2> <p class="MsoNormal"><span class="toctoggle"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">[<a href="javascript:toggleToc()"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">hide</span></a>]</span></i></span><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#History#History"><span class="tocnumber2"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">1</span></span><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"> <span class="toctext">History</span></span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#Corporate_governance#Corporate_governance"><span class="tocnumber2"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">2</span></span><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"> <span class="toctext">Corporate governance</span></span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><ul type="circle"><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#Corporate_structure#Corporate_structure"><span class="tocnumber2"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">2.1</span></span><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"> <span class="toctext">Corporate structure</span></span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li></ul><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#Social_policies#Social_policies"><span class="tocnumber2"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">3</span></span><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"> <span class="toctext">Social policies</span></span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#Marketing#Marketing"><span class="tocnumber2"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">4</span></span><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"> <span class="toctext">Marketing</span></span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><ul type="circle"><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#Distinguishing_the_brands#Distinguishing_the_brands"><span class="tocnumber2"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">4.1</span></span><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"> <span class="toctext">Distinguishing the brands</span></span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#Compacts_arrive#Compacts_arrive"><span class="tocnumber2"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">4.2</span></span><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"> <span class="toctext">Compacts arrive</span></span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#Rebadging_era#Rebadging_era"><span class="tocnumber2"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">4.3</span></span><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"> <span class="toctext">Rebadging era</span></span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#GM_in_the_new_century#GM_in_the_new_century"><span class="tocnumber2"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">4.4</span></span><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"> <span class="toctext">GM in the new century</span></span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#GM_in_China#GM_in_China"><span class="tocnumber2"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">4.5</span></span><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"> <span class="toctext">GM in China</span></span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#Video_News_Release#Video_News_Release"><span class="tocnumber2"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">4.6</span></span><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"> <span class="toctext">Video News Release</span></span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li></ul><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#Subsidies#Subsidies"><span class="tocnumber2"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">5</span></span><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"> <span class="toctext">Subsidies</span></span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#Auto_racing#Auto_racing"><span class="tocnumber2"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">6</span></span><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"> <span class="toctext">Auto racing</span></span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#Environmental_record#Environmental_record"><span class="tocnumber2"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">7</span></span><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"> <span class="toctext">Environmental record</span></span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><ul type="circle"><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#Electric_vehicles#Electric_vehicles"><span class="tocnumber2"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">7.1</span></span><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"> <span class="toctext">Electric vehicles</span></span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#Hybrid_initiative#Hybrid_initiative"><span class="tocnumber2"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">7.2</span></span><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"> <span class="toctext">Hybrid initiative</span></span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#Hydrogen_initiative#Hydrogen_initiative"><span class="tocnumber2"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">7.3</span></span><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"> <span class="toctext">Hydrogen initiative</span></span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#GM_Flexfuel#GM_Flexfuel"><span class="tocnumber2"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">7.4</span></span><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"> <span class="toctext">GM Flexfuel</span></span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li></ul><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#Corporate_restructuring#Corporate_restructuring"><span class="tocnumber2"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">8</span></span><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"> <span class="toctext">Corporate restructuring</span></span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#See_also#See_also"><span class="tocnumber2"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">9</span></span><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"> <span class="toctext">See also</span></span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><ul type="circle"><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#People#People"><span class="tocnumber2"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">9.1</span></span><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"> <span class="toctext">People</span></span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#Books_and_films#Books_and_films"><span class="tocnumber2"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">9.2</span></span><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"> <span class="toctext">Books and films</span></span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#Brands#Brands"><span class="tocnumber2"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">9.3</span></span><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"> <span class="toctext">Brands</span></span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#Other_related_topics#Other_related_topics"><span class="tocnumber2"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">9.4</span></span><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"> <span class="toctext">Other related topics</span></span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#Subsidiaries#Subsidiaries"><span class="tocnumber2"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">9.5</span></span><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"> <span class="toctext">Subsidiaries</span></span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#Divisions#Divisions"><span class="tocnumber2"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">9.6</span></span><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"> <span class="toctext">Divisions</span></span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#Umbrella_organization#Umbrella_organization"><span class="tocnumber2"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">9.7</span></span><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"> <span class="toctext">Umbrella organization</span></span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#Categories#Categories"><span class="tocnumber2"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">9.8</span></span><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"> <span class="toctext">Categories</span></span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li></ul><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#References#References"><span class="tocnumber2"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">10</span></span><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"> <span class="toctext">References</span></span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#Further_reading#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber2"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">11</span></span><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#External_links#External_links"><span class="tocnumber2"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">12</span></span><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"> <span class="toctext">External links</span></span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><ul type="circle"><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#Official#Official"><span class="tocnumber2"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">12.1</span></span><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"> <span class="toctext">Official</span></span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#Unofficial#Unofficial"><span class="tocnumber2"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">12.2</span></span><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"> <span class="toctext">Unofficial</span></span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li></ul></ul> </td> </tr> </tbody></table><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><h2 style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a name="History"></a><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=General_Motors&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">edit</span></a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">History</span><o:p></o:p></span></i></h2><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; margin-left: 0.5in; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_General_Motors" title="History of General Motors"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">History of General Motors</span></a></span></i><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:GM_headquarters_in_Detroit.JPG" title="The Renaissance Center in Detroit, Michigan, is General Motors' world headquarters."><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1030" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="The Renaissance Center in Detroit, Michigan, is General Motors' world headquarters." href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:GM_headquarters_in_Detroit.JPG" title=""The Renaissance Center in Detroit, Michigan, is General Motors' world headquarters."" style="'width:187.5pt;height:244.5pt'" button="t"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\MSOFT\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtml1\01\clip_image008.jpg" href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/GM_headquarters_in_Detroit.JPG/250px-GM_headquarters_in_Detroit.JPG"> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/MSOFT/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtml1/01/clip_image008.jpg" alt="The Renaissance Center in Detroit, Michigan, is General Motors' world headquarters." shapes="_x0000_i1030" border="0" height="326" width="250" /></span><!--[endif]--></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:GM_headquarters_in_Detroit.JPG" title="Enlarge"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1031" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:GM_headquarters_in_Detroit.JPG" title="Enlarge" style="'width:11.25pt;height:8.25pt'" button="t"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\MSOFT\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtml1\01\clip_image009.gif" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png"> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/MSOFT/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtml1/01/clip_image009.gif" shapes="_x0000_i1031" border="0" height="11" width="15" /></span><!--[endif]--></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_Center" title="Renaissance Center"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Renaissance Center</span></a> in <st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on">Detroit</st1:city>, <st1:state st="on">Michigan</st1:state></st1:place>, is General Motors' world headquarters.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">General Motors (GM) was founded on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_16" title="September 16"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">September 16</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1908" title="1908"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">1908</span></a> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flint%2C_Michigan" title="Flint, Michigan"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Flint, Michigan</span></a>, as a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holding_company" title="Holding company"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">holding company</span></a> for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buick" title="Buick"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Buick</span></a>, then controlled by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_C._Durant" title="William C. Durant"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">William C. Durant</span></a>, and acquired <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldsmobile" title="Oldsmobile"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Oldsmobile</span></a> later that year. The next year, Durant brought in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadillac" title="Cadillac"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Cadillac</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elmore_%28automobile%29" title="Elmore (automobile)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Elmore</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakland_automobile" title="Oakland automobile"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Oakland</span></a> (later known as <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Pontiac</st1:place></st1:city>) and several others. In 1909, General Motors acquired the Reliance Motor Truck Company of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Owosso%2C_Michigan" title="Owosso, Michigan"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Owosso, Michigan</span></a>, and the Rapid Motor Vehicle Company of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontiac%2C_Michigan" title="Pontiac, Michigan"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Pontiac, Michigan</span></a>, the predecessors of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GMC" title="GMC"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">GMC</span></a> Truck. Durant lost control of GM in 1910 to a bankers' trust, because of the large amount of debt taken on in its acquisitions - around US$1.0 million.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><h2 style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><a name="Corporate_governance"></a><span class="editsection"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=General_Motors&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Corporate governance"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">edit</span></a>]</span></i></span><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <span class="mw-headline">Corporate governance</span><o:p></o:p></span></i></h2><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">Current members of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Board_of_directors" title="Board of directors"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">board of directors</span></a> of General Motors are: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percy_Barnevik" title="Percy Barnevik"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Percy Barnevik</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erskine_Bowles" title="Erskine Bowles"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Erskine Bowles</span></a>, John Bryan, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armando_Codina" title="Armando Codina"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Armando Codina</span></a>, Erroll Davis, George Fisher, Karen Katen, Kent Kresa, Ellen Kullman, Philip Laskawy, Kathryn V. Marinello, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eckhard_Pfeiffer" title="Eckhard Pfeiffer"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Eckhard Pfeiffer</span></a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wagoner" title="Richard Wagoner"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Richard Wagoner</span></a> (chairman). Jerome York, who was elected to the board on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_6" title="February 6"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">February 6</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006" title="2006"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">2006</span></a> to represent <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirk_Kerkorian" title="Kirk Kerkorian"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Kirk Kerkorian</span></a>, abruptly resigned on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_6" title="October 6"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">October 6</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006" title="2006"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">2006</span></a>, following the decision by GM to break off talks about an alliance with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nissan" title="Nissan"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Nissan</span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renault" title="Renault"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Renault</span></a>.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">Rick Wagoner is also the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_executive_officer" title="Chief executive officer"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">chief executive officer</span></a> of the company (since <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_1" title="June 1"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">June 1</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000" title="2000"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">2000</span></a>), succeeding <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._Smith%2C_Jr." title="John F. Smith, Jr."><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">John F. Smith, Jr.</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><h3 style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><a name="Corporate_structure"></a><span class="editsection"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=General_Motors&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Corporate structure"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">edit</span></a>]</span></i></span><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <span class="mw-headline">Corporate structure</span><o:p></o:p></span></i></h3><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">General Motors is structured into the following groups:<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="text-align: justify;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">GM Automotive <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><ul type="circle"><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">GMAP - <st1:place st="on">Asia</st1:place> Pacific <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">GME - <st1:place st="on">Europe</st1:place> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">GMLAAM - Latin America <st1:place st="on">Africa</st1:place> Mid-East <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">GMNA - <st1:place st="on">North America</st1:place> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li></ul><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">GMAC Finance and insurance services <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">Other Operations <o:p></o:p></span></i></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><h2 style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><a name="Social_policies"></a><span class="editsection"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=General_Motors&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Social policies"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">edit</span></a>]</span></i></span><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <span class="mw-headline">Social policies</span><o:p></o:p></span></i></h2><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Uaw-GM_Center_For_Human_Resource.jpg" title="UAW-GM Center for Human Resources in Detroit."><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1032" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="UAW-GM Center for Human Resources in Detroit." href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Uaw-GM_Center_For_Human_Resource.jpg" title=""UAW-GM Center for Human Resources in Detroit."" style="'width:150pt;" button="t"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\MSOFT\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtml1\01\clip_image010.jpg" href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e1/Uaw-GM_Center_For_Human_Resource.jpg/200px-Uaw-GM_Center_For_Human_Resource.jpg"> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/MSOFT/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtml1/01/clip_image010.jpg" alt="UAW-GM Center for Human Resources in Detroit." shapes="_x0000_i1032" border="0" height="150" width="200" /></span><!--[endif]--></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Uaw-GM_Center_For_Human_Resource.jpg" title="Enlarge"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1033" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Uaw-GM_Center_For_Human_Resource.jpg" title="Enlarge" style="'width:11.25pt;height:8.25pt'" button="t"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\MSOFT\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtml1\01\clip_image009.gif" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png"> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/MSOFT/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtml1/01/clip_image009.gif" shapes="_x0000_i1033" border="0" height="11" width="15" /></span><!--[endif]--></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><st1:placename st="on"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">UAW-GM</span></i></st1:placename><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <st1:placetype st="on">Center</st1:placetype> for Human Resources in <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Detroit</st1:place></st1:city>.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">General Motors was named one of the "100 Best Companies for Working Mothers" in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004" title="2004"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">2004</span></a> by <span style="">Working Mothers</span> magazine. GM has also given millions of dollars in computers to colleges of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Engineering</span></a> through its PACE Awards program.<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_note-4#_note-4" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[5]</span></a></sup> Together with the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Auto_Workers" title="United Auto Workers"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">United Auto Workers</span></a>, GM created a joint venture dedicated to the quality of life needs of employees in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1985" title="1985"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">1985</span></a>. The UAW-GM Center for Human Resources in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit" title="Detroit"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Detroit</span></a> is dedicated to providing GM salaried employees and GM UAW members programs and services related to medical care, diversity issues, education, training and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuition" title="Tuition"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">tuition</span></a> assistance, as well as programs related to work and family concerns, in addition to the traditional union-employer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_and_safety" title="Health and safety"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">health and safety</span></a> partnership.<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_note-5#_note-5" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[6]</span></a></sup><o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><h2 style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><a name="Marketing"></a><span class="editsection"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=General_Motors&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Marketing"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">edit</span></a>]</span></i></span><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <span class="mw-headline">Marketing</span><o:p></o:p></span></i></h2><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">At one time, each of GM's automotive divisions were targeted to specific market segments and despite some shared components, each distinguished itself from its stablemates with unique styling and technology. The shared components and common corporate management created substantial <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_scale" title="Economy of scale"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">economies of scale</span></a>, while the distinctions between the divisions created an orderly upgrade path, with an entry-level buyer starting out with a practical and economical <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet" title="Chevrolet"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Chevrolet</span></a> and moving through offerings of the different divisions until the purchase of a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadillac" title="Cadillac"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Cadillac</span></a>. The divisions were not <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competition" title="Competition"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">competing</span></a> with each other as much as passing along the same customer who would thus always be buying a GM product.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">The postwar automobile industry became enamored with the concept of "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_obsolescence" title="Planned obsolescence"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">planned obsolescence</span></a>", implemented by both technical and styling innovations with a typical 3-year product cycle. In this cycle, a new basic body shell is introduced and then modified for the next two years with minor styling changes. GM, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company" title="Ford Motor Company"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Ford</span></a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysler_Corporation" title="Chrysler Corporation"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Chrysler</span></a> competed vigorously in this new restyling environment.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><h3 style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><a name="Distinguishing_the_brands"></a><span class="editsection"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=General_Motors&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Distinguishing the brands"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">edit</span></a>]</span></i></span><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <span class="mw-headline">Distinguishing the brands</span><o:p></o:p></span></i></h3><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">By 1958, the divisional distinctions within GM began to blur with the availability of high-performance engines in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet" title="Chevrolet"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Chevrolets</span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontiac" title="Pontiac"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Pontiacs</span></a>. The introduction of higher trim models such as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet_Impala" title="Chevrolet Impala"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Chevrolet Impala</span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontiac_Bonneville" title="Pontiac Bonneville"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Pontiac Bonneville</span></a> priced in line with some <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldsmobile" title="Oldsmobile"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Oldsmobile</span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buick" title="Buick"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Buick</span></a> offerings was also confusing to consumers. By the time <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontiac" title="Pontiac"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Pontiac</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldsmobile" title="Oldsmobile"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Oldsmobile</span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buick" title="Buick"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Buick</span></a> introduced similarly styled and priced compact models in 1961, the old "step-up" structure between the divisions was nearly over.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><h3 style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><a name="Compacts_arrive"></a><span class="editsection"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=General_Motors&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Compacts arrive"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">edit</span></a>]</span></i></span><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <span class="mw-headline">Compacts arrive</span><o:p></o:p></span></i></h3><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">The 1960s saw the creation of compact and intermediate classes. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet_Corvair" title="Chevrolet Corvair"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Chevrolet Corvair</span></a> was a 6-cylinder answer to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkswagen_Beetle" title="Volkswagen Beetle"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Volkswagen Beetle</span></a>, the Chevy II was created to match Ford's conventional <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Falcon_%28North_America%29" title="Ford Falcon (North America)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Falcon</span></a> and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet_Camaro" title="Chevrolet Camaro"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Chevrolet Camaro</span></a>/<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontiac_Firebird" title="Pontiac Firebird"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Pontiac Firebird</span></a> was GMs counter measure to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Mustang" title="Ford Mustang"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Ford Mustang</span></a>. Among intermediates, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldsmobile_Cutlass" title="Oldsmobile Cutlass"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Oldsmobile Cutlass</span></a> nameplate became so popular during the 1970s that <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldsmobile" title="Oldsmobile"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Oldsmobile</span></a> applied the Cutlass name to most of its products in the 1980s. By the mid 1960s, most of GM's vehicles were built on a few common <span style="">platforms</span> and in the 1970s GM began to use nearly identical body panel stampings, differing only in internal and external trim items.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1971" title="1971"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">1971</span></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet_Vega" title="Chevrolet Vega"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Chevrolet Vega</span></a> was GMs launch into the new subcompact class. Problems associated with its innovative <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminum" title="Aluminum"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">aluminum</span></a> engines would damage GMs reputation more than perhaps any other vehicle in its history. During the late 1970s, GM would initiate a wave of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downsizing" title="Downsizing"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">downsizing</span></a> starting with the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet_Caprice" title="Chevrolet Caprice"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Chevrolet Caprice</span></a> which was reborn into what was the size of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet_Chevelle" title="Chevrolet Chevelle"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Chevrolet Chevelle</span></a>, the Malibu would be the size of the Nova, and the Nova was replaced by the troubled front-wheel drive <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citation" title="Citation"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Citation</span></a>.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><h3 style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><a name="Rebadging_era"></a><span class="editsection"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=General_Motors&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Rebadging era"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">edit</span></a>]</span></i></span><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <span class="mw-headline">Rebadging era</span><o:p></o:p></span></i></h3><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">By the 1980s, GM frequently "rebadged" one division's successful vehicle into several models across the divisions, all positioned close to one another in the market place. Thus a new GM model's main competition might be another model spawned off the same platform. This led to market "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannibal#Other_uses_of_the_word" title="Cannibal"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">cannibalization</span></a>" with the divisions spending time stealing sales from one another. Even today, the company's GMT360 mid-sized light truck platform has spawned the basic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet_Trailblazer" title="Chevrolet Trailblazer"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Chevrolet Trailblazer</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldsmobile_Bravada" title="Oldsmobile Bravada"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Oldsmobile Bravada</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GMC_Envoy" title="GMC Envoy"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">GMC Envoy</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isuzu_Ascender" title="Isuzu Ascender"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Isuzu Ascender</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buick_Rainier" title="Buick Rainier"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Buick Rainier</span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saab_9-7X" title="Saab 9-7X"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Saab 9-7X</span></a>. Though each model had a more or less unique mission, the trucks can hardly be discerned from one another.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><h3 style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><a name="GM_in_the_new_century"></a><span class="editsection"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=General_Motors&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: GM in the new century"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">edit</span></a>]</span></i></span><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <span class="mw-headline">GM in the new century</span><o:p></o:p></span></i></h3><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">In the late 1990s, the <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">U.S.</st1:place></st1:country-region> economy was on the rise and GM and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford" title="Ford"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Ford</span></a> gained market share producing enormous profits primarily from the sale of light trucks and sport-utility vehicles. From 2000 to 2001, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Reserve" title="Federal Reserve"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Federal Reserve</span></a> in a move to quell the stock market, made twelve successive interest rate increases. Following the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_11%2C_2001_attacks" title="September 11, 2001 attacks"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">September 11, 2001 attacks</span></a>, a severe stock market decline caused a pension and benefit fund underfunding crisis. GM began its <span style="">Keep America Rolling</span> campaign, which boosted sales, and other auto makers were forced to follow suit. The <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">U.S.</st1:place></st1:country-region> automakers saw sales increase to leverage costs as gross margins deteriorated. Although retiree health care costs remain a significant issue, General Motors' investment strategy has generated a $17.1 billion surplus in 2007 in its $101 billion U.S pension fund portfolio, a $35 billion reversal from its $17.8 billion of underfunding.<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_note-6#_note-6" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[7]</span></a></sup><o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">In 2004, GM redirected resources from the development of new sedans to an accelerated refurbishment of their light trucks and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sport_utility_vehicle" title="Sport utility vehicle"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">SUVs</span></a> for introduction as 2007 models in early 2006. Shortly after this decision, fuel prices increased by over 50% and this in turn affected both the trade-in value of used vehicles and the perceived desirability of new offerings in these market segments. The current marketing plan to extensively tout these revised vehicles as offering the best fuel economy <span style="">in their class</span> (of vehicle). GM claims its hybrid trucks will have gas-mileage improvements of 25%.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">In the summer of 2005, GM announced that its corporate chrome emblem "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_of_Excellence" title="Mark of Excellence"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Mark of Excellence</span></a>" will begin appearing on all recently introduced and all-new 2006 model vehicles produced and sold in <st1:place st="on">North America</st1:place>. The move is seen as an attempt by GM to link its name and vehicle brands more closely.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">In 2005, GM promoted sales through an employee discount to all buyers. Marketed as the lowest possible price, GM cleared an inventory buildup of 2005 models to make way for its 2006 lineup. While the promotion was a temporary shot in the arm for sales, it did not help the company's bottom line. GM has since changed its marketing strategy to a no haggle sticker policy in which all vehicle prices are lowered, but incentives are reduced, if not eliminated.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><h3 style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><a name="GM_in_China"></a><span class="editsection"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=General_Motors&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: GM in China"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">edit</span></a>]</span></i></span><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <span class="mw-headline">GM in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region></span><o:p></o:p></span></i></h3><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">General Motors is the best selling auto maker in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" title="China"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">China</span></a>.<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_note-7#_note-7" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[8]</span></a></sup> The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buick" title="Buick"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Buick</span></a> brand is especially strong, led by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buick_Excelle" title="Buick Excelle"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Buick Excelle</span></a> subcompact. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadillac" title="Cadillac"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Cadillac</span></a> initiated sales in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" title="China"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">China</span></a> in 2004, starting with imports from the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">United States</span></a>. GM pushed the marketing of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet" title="Chevrolet"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Chevrolet</span></a> brand in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" title="China"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">China</span></a> in 2005 as well, moving the former <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buick_Sail" title="Buick Sail"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Buick Sail</span></a> to that marque. The company manufactures most of its China-market vehicles locally, through its <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_GM" title="Shanghai GM"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Shanghai GM</span></a> joint venture. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAIC-GM-Wuling_Automobile" title="SAIC-GM-Wuling Automobile"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">SAIC-GM-Wuling Automobile</span></a> joint-venture is also successful selling trucks and vans under the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAIC-GM-Wuling_Automobile" title="SAIC-GM-Wuling Automobile"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Wuling</span></a> marque.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><h3 style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><a name="Video_News_Release"></a><span class="editsection"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=General_Motors&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Video News Release"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">edit</span></a>]</span></i></span><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <span class="mw-headline">Video News Release</span><o:p></o:p></span></i></h3><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">On June 16th, 2006, television station <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KMSP" title="KMSP"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">KMSP</span></a> played a "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_news_release" title="Video news release"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">video news release</span></a>" about convertibles produced by GM in its entirety. The narrator, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medialink" title="Medialink"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Medialink</span></a> publicist Andrew Schmertz, was introduced as reporter André Schmertz. KMSP did not disclose the corporate source of this segment to their viewers.<a href="http://www.prwatch.org/fakenews2/vnr41" title="http://www.prwatch.org/fakenews2/vnr41"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[1]</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><h2 style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><a name="Subsidies"></a><span class="editsection"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=General_Motors&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Subsidies"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">edit</span></a>]</span></i></span><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <span class="mw-headline">Subsidies</span><o:p></o:p></span></i></h2><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">In March 2005, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_Canada" title="Government of Canada"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Government of Canada</span></a> provided <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_dollar" title="Canadian dollar"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">C$</span></a>200 million in incentives to General Motors for its Ontario plants, and last fall it provided C$100 million to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Motor_Co." title="Ford Motor Co."><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Ford Motor Co.</span></a> to expand production and provide jobs, according to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Harris_%28politician%29" title="Jim Harris (politician)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Jim Harris</span></a>. Similar incentives were promised to non-North American auto companies like <st1:city st="on">Toyota</st1:city>, Premier Dalton McGuinty said the money the province and <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Ottawa</st1:place></st1:city> are pledging for the project is well-spent. His government has committed <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_dollar" title="Canadian dollar"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">C$</span></a>400 million, including the latest <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Toyota</st1:place></st1:city> package of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_dollar" title="Canadian dollar"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">C$</span></a>125 million, to the province's automobile sector, which helped finance $5 billion worth of industry projects. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_care_in_Canada" title="Health care in Canada"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Canada's single payer health care system</span></a> has helped reduce health care costs for the U.S auto industry.<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_note-8#_note-8" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[9]</span></a></sup><o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">For the first time, in 2004 the total number of cars produced by all makers in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Ontario</span></a> exceeded those produced in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michigan" title="Michigan"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Michigan</span></a>.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">For the first time in 2004 GM sold more vehicles in other countries than inside the <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">US</st1:place></st1:country-region>.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><h2 style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><a name="Auto_racing"></a><span class="editsection"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=General_Motors&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Auto racing"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">edit</span></a>]</span></i></span><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <span class="mw-headline">Auto racing</span><o:p></o:p></span></i></h2><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">General Motors has an extensive history in numerous forms of racing. Vehicles of most, if not all, of GM's brands have been represented in competition, with perhaps <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet" title="Chevrolet"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Chevrolet</span></a> being the most prominent. In particular, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet_Corvette" title="Chevrolet Corvette"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Chevrolet Corvette</span></a> has long been popular and successful in international road racing. GM also is a supplier of racing components, such as engines, transmissions, and electronics.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">GM's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldsmobile_Aurora" title="Oldsmobile Aurora"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Oldsmobile Aurora</span></a> engine platform was successful in open-wheel Indy-style racing throughout the 1990s, winning many races in the small <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V8_engine" title="V8 engine"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">V-8</span></a> class. An unmodified Aurora V-8 in the Aerotech, captured 47 world records, including the record for speed endurance in the Motorsports Hall of Fame of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">America</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Recently, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadillac_V-Series" title="Cadillac V-Series"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Cadillac V-Series</span></a> has entered motorsports racing. GM has also used many cars in the American racing series <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASCAR" title="NASCAR"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">NASCAR</span></a>. Currently the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet_Monte_Carlo" title="Chevrolet Monte Carlo"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Chevrolet Monte Carlo</span></a> is the only entry in the series but in the past the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontiac_Grand_Prix" title="Pontiac Grand Prix"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Pontiac Grand Prix</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buick_Regal" title="Buick Regal"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Buick Regal</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldsmobile_Cutlass" title="Oldsmobile Cutlass"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Oldsmobile Cutlass</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet_Lumina" title="Chevrolet Lumina"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Chevrolet Lumina</span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet_Malibu" title="Chevrolet Malibu"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Chevrolet Malibu</span></a> were also used. Starting in March 2007, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet_Impala" title="Chevrolet Impala"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Chevrolet Impala</span></a> will be phased into the series.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">In touring cars (mainly in Europe) <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vauxhall" title="Vauxhall"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Vauxhall</span></a> is a key player and former champion in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Touring_Car_Championship" title="British Touring Car Championship"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">British Touring Car Championship</span></a> (BTCC) series and competes with a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vauxhall_Astra" title="Vauxhall Astra"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Vauxhall Astra VXR</span></a> in BTC spec. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opel" title="Opel"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Opel</span></a> is one of the three participants in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DTM" title="DTM"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">DTM</span></a> series (along with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audi" title="Audi"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Audi</span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercedes_Benz" title="Mercedes Benz"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Mercedes Benz</span></a>) and is a former champion and competes with a unique 500 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horse_power" title="Horse power"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">bhp</span></a> vehicle that resembles the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opel_Vectra" title="Opel Vectra"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Opel Vectra</span></a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet" title="Chevrolet"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Chevrolet</span></a> competes with a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet_Lacetti" title="Chevrolet Lacetti"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Lacetti</span></a> in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIA" title="FIA"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">FIA</span></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Touring_Car_Championship" title="World Touring Car Championship"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">World Touring Car Championship</span></a> (WTCC).<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia" title="Australia"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Australia</span></a>, there is the prestigious <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V8_Supercar" title="V8 Supercar"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">V8 Supercar</span></a> Championship which is battled out by the two main rivals of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holden" title="Holden"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Holden</span></a>& <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford" title="Ford"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Ford</span></a>. The current <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holden" title="Holden"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Holden</span></a> Racing Team cars are based on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holden_Commodore" title="Holden Commodore"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Holden Commodore</span></a> and run a 5.0-litre V8-cylinder engine producing 650+BHP (approx 480 kW Power) @ 7500 rpm). These cars have a top speed of 300+km/h (185 mph) and run 0-100 km/h in less than 4 seconds. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holden_Racing_Team" title="Holden Racing Team"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Holden Racing Team</span></a> is <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region>'s most successful team in Australian Touring Car History. In 2006 both the Teams and Drivers championship was won by the very closely linked <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toll_HSV_Dealer_Team" title="Toll HSV Dealer Team"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Toll HSV Dealer Team</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><h2 style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><a name="Environmental_record"></a><span class="editsection"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=General_Motors&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Environmental record"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">edit</span></a>]</span></i></span><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <span class="mw-headline">Environmental record</span><o:p></o:p></span></i></h2><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">General Motors is both active in environmental causes and, as a major industrial force, implicated in ecologically harmful activity. The company has long worked on alternative-technology vehicles, and has recently led the industry with clean burning Flexfuel vehicles that can run on either E-85 (ethanol) or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">gasoline</span></a>. The company was the first to use <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbocharger" title="Turbocharger"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">turbochargers</span></a> and was an early proponent of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V6" title="V6"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">V6</span></a> engines in the 1960s, but quickly lost interest as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscle_car" title="Muscle car"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">muscle car</span></a> race took hold. They demonstrated <a href="http://www.conklinsystems.com/firebird/mlife.php" title="http://www.conklinsystems.com/firebird/mlife.php"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[2]</span></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_turbine" title="Gas turbine"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">gas turbine</span></a> vehicles powered by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerosene" title="Kerosene"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">kerosene</span></a>, an area of interest throughout the industry in the late 1950s, but despite extensive thermal recycling (developed by Chrysler) the fuel consumption was too high and starting torque too low for everyday use. They were also an early licensee of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wankel_engine" title="Wankel engine"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Wankel engine</span></a> technology, even developing the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet_Monza" title="Chevrolet Monza"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Chevrolet Monza</span></a> around the powerplant, but abandoned the alternative engine configuration in view of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">1973 oil crisis</span></a>. In the 1970s and 1980s, GM pushed the benefits of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel" title="Diesel"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">diesel</span></a> engines and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_deactivation" title="Cylinder deactivation"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">cylinder deactivation</span></a> technologies with disastrous results due to poor durability in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldsmobile" title="Oldsmobile"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Oldsmobile</span></a> diesels and drivability issues in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadillac" title="Cadillac"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Cadillac</span></a> 4-6-8 variable cylinder engines. In 1987 GM, in conjunction with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerovironment" title="Aerovironment"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Aerovironment</span></a> built the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunraycer" title="Sunraycer"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Sunraycer</span></a> which won the inaugural <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Solar_Challenge" title="World Solar Challenge"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">World Solar Challenge</span></a> and was a showcase of advanced technology. Much of the technology from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunraycer" title="Sunraycer"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Sunraycer</span></a> found its way into the Impact prototype electric vehicle (also built by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerovironment" title="Aerovironment"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Aerovironment</span></a> and was the predecessor to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_EV1" title="General Motors EV1"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">EV1</span></a>.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">General Motors has been criticized for its membership of the anti-<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Kyoto Protocol</span></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Climate_Coalition" title="Global Climate Coalition"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Global Climate Coalition</span></a> and for remaining in the group after other vehicle manufacturers had left <sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_note-9#_note-9" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[10]</span></a></sup>, as well as for production of increasingly fuel inefficient and environmentally irresponsible vehicles such as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hummer" title="Hummer"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Hummer</span></a><sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_note-10#_note-10" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[11]</span></a></sup>. GM recently opposed the new <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAFE" title="CAFE"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">CAFE</span></a> standard increase from 27 mpg to 35 mpg, the first such increase in over 20 years citing it will harm their business.<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_note-11#_note-11" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[12]</span></a></sup> The company’s industrial record has also prompted criticism. Researchers at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Massachusetts" title="University of Massachusetts"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">University of Massachusetts</span></a> recently listed General Motors as the 20th largest corporate producer of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">air pollution</span></a> in the United States, with 12,771,830 pounds of toxic chemicals released annually into the air.<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_note-12#_note-12" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[13]</span></a></sup> The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">United States Environmental Protection Agency</span></a> has linked the corporation to 75 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superfund" title="Superfund"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Superfund</span></a> toxic waste sites, ranking General Motors second only to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">General Electric</span></a> and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Federal_Government" title="U.S. Federal Government"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">U.S. Federal Government</span></a> in the number of Superfund sites for which it is potentially responsible. <sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_note-13#_note-13" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[14]</span></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_note-14#_note-14" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[15]</span></a></sup><o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><h4 style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><a name="Electric_vehicles"></a><span class="editsection"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=General_Motors&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Electric vehicles"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">edit</span></a>]</span></i></span><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <span class="mw-headline">Electric vehicles</span><o:p></o:p></span></i></h4><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Evcrushed.jpg" title="EV1s crushed by General Motors"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1034" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="EV1s crushed by General Motors" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Evcrushed.jpg" title=""EV1s crushed by General Motors"" style="'width:225pt;height:168.75pt'" button="t"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\MSOFT\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtml1\01\clip_image011.jpg" href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/21/Evcrushed.jpg/300px-Evcrushed.jpg"> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/MSOFT/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtml1/01/clip_image011.jpg" alt="EV1s crushed by General Motors" shapes="_x0000_i1034" border="0" height="225" width="300" /></span><!--[endif]--></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Evcrushed.jpg" title="Enlarge"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1035" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Evcrushed.jpg" title="Enlarge" style="'width:11.25pt;height:8.25pt'" button="t"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\MSOFT\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtml1\01\clip_image009.gif" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png"> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/MSOFT/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtml1/01/clip_image009.gif" shapes="_x0000_i1035" border="0" height="11" width="15" /></span><!--[endif]--></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">EV1s crushed by General Motors<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">On <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_30" title="June 30"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">June 30</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006" title="2006"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">2006</span></a> a documentary about the demise of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_EV1" title="General Motors EV1"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">EV1</span></a> and other electric vehicles entitled "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Who_Killed_the_Electric_Car%3F" title="Who Killed the Electric Car?"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Who Killed the Electric Car?</span></a>" debuted in theatres across America, sparking criticism of the motivation behind the cancellation of their electric car program.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">Consumer advocates, activists, commentators, journalists, and documentary makers claim GM had deliberately <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabotage" title="Sabotage"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">sabotaged</span></a> their company's zero emission electric vehicle efforts through several methods: failing to market, failing to produce appropriate vehicles, failing to satisfy demand, and using lease-only programs with prohibitions against end of lease purchase.<a href="http://dontcrush.com/" title="http://dontcrush.com"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[3]</span></a> <a href="http://www.pbs.org/now/shows/223/index.html#here" title="http://www.pbs.org/now/shows/223/index.html#here"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[4]</span></a> <a href="http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/03/11/eveningnews/main543605.shtml" title="http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/03/11/eveningnews/main543605.shtml"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[5]</span></a> <a href="http://ev1.org/#vigilog" title="http://ev1.org/#vigilog"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[6]</span></a> <a href="http://dontcrush.com/" title="http://dontcrush.com/"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[7]</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">The process of obtaining the EV1, GM's first electric vehicle, was difficult. The vehicle could not be purchased outright. Instead, General Motors offered a closed-end lease for three years, with no renewal or residual purchase options. The EV1 was only available from specialist Saturn dealerships, and only in <st1:state st="on">California</st1:state> and <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on">Arizona</st1:place></st1:state>.<a href="http://www.answers.com/topic/general-motors-ev1" title="http://www.answers.com/topic/general-motors-ev1"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[8]</span></a> Before reviewing leasing options, a potential lessee would be taken through a 'pre-qualification' process in order to learn how the EV1 was different from other vehicles. Next came a waiting list with no scheduled delivery date.<a href="http://pages.prodigy.net/noela/myev.htm" title="http://pages.prodigy.net/noela/myev.htm"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[9]</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">Several weeks before the debut of the movie, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution" title="Smithsonian Institution"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Smithsonian Institution</span></a> announced that its EV1 display was being permanently removed and the EV1 car put into storage. GM is a major financial contributor to the museum, but both parties denied that this fact contributed to the removal of the display.<a href="http://www.detnews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060711/AUTO01/607110368/1148" title="http://www.detnews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060711/AUTO01/607110368/1148"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[10]</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">General Motors has responded to complaints about the scrapping of the EV1 program and they dispute the existence of any conspiracy surrounding its demise. An entry was posted on the <a href="http://www.gm.com/company/onlygm/fastlane_Blog.html" title="http://www.gm.com/company/onlygm/fastlane_Blog.html"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">GM FastLane Blog</span></a> in 2006 in which GM defended its decision by saying that it was unable to guarantee the vehicles could continue to be maintained in a safe operating state. <a href="http://www.gm.com/company/onlygm/fastlane_Blog.html#EV1" title="http://www.gm.com/company/onlygm/fastlane_Blog.html#EV1"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[11]</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">GM alleges that during the four years available to the public, only 800 EV1's were released. Over $1 billion was spent on the EV1 program, with a great portion used for consumer incentives and marketing. With a waiting list of 5,000 applicants, only 50 individuals actually were willing to accept a lease on the EV1. Suppliers ceased production of replacement parts due to the low demand for the EV1. This made repairs and continued safety of the vehicles difficult. The EV1 was designed as a developmental vehicle and was never intended for serial production.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">The limitations of storage technology and the expense of production would have made the cars impractical for the vast majority of consumers; a production EV1 would have met limited demand and would have been priced out of reach of most. Had sufficient demand existed to justify mass production and had costs and technologies been able to support mass production, GM would have been more receptive to the idea.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">General Motors (GM) has responded to allegations made in the film through a blog post entitled <a href="http://fyi.gmblogs.com/2006/06/who_ignored_the_facts_about_th.html" title="http://fyi.gmblogs.com/2006/06/who_ignored_the_facts_about_th.html"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Who Ignored the Facts About the Electric Car?</span></a>. In it, Dave Barthmuss writes: "Sadly, despite the substantial investment of money and the enthusiastic fervor of a relatively small number of EV1 drivers — including the filmmaker — the EV1 proved far from a viable commercial success." Barthmuss notes investments in electric vehicle technology since the EV1: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-Mode_Hybrid" title="Two-Mode Hybrid"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Two-Mode Hybrid</span></a>, plug-in hybrid, and fuel cell vehicle programs. The filmmakers suggested that GM did not immediately channel its technological progress with the EV1 into these projects, and instead let the technology languish while focusing on more immediately profitable enterprises such as SUVs. Contrary to this suggestion, as Barthmuss points out, GM is bullish on hydrogen:<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">According to GM, not all of the EV1's were destroyed. Many were donated to research institutions and facilities, along with museums. Some are still owned by General Motors themselves, and are kept at their Technical Design center in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren%2C_Michigan" title="Warren, Michigan"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Warren, Michigan</span></a>, and can occasionally be seen on the road within a close area of the tech center. <a href="http://www.gm.com/company/onlygm/fastlane_Blog.html#EV1" title="http://www.gm.com/company/onlygm/fastlane_Blog.html#EV1"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[12]</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">There is no other <b>major</b> automaker on the road offering a fully electric vehicle designed for everyday use on public transportation routes, <a href="http://www.gm.com/company/onlygm/fastlane_Blog.html#EV1" title="http://www.gm.com/company/onlygm/fastlane_Blog.html#EV1"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[13]</span></a> however <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Think_Nordic" title="Think Nordic"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Think_Nordic</span></a>, at one time under the ownership of Ford, have produced a range of electric vehicles in limited numbers.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><h4 style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><a name="Hybrid_initiative"></a><span class="editsection"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=General_Motors&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Hybrid initiative"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">edit</span></a>]</span></i></span><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <span class="mw-headline">Hybrid initiative</span><o:p></o:p></span></i></h4><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">In May 2004, GM delivered the world's first full sized hybrid pickups, and introduced a hybrid passenger car. In 2005, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opel_Astra" title="Opel Astra"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Opel Astra</span></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel" title="Diesel"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">diesel</span></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_vehicle" title="Hybrid vehicle"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Hybrid</span></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept_vehicle" title="Concept vehicle"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">concept vehicle</span></a> was introduced. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006" title="2006"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">2006</span></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn_VUE#Green_Line" title="Saturn VUE"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Saturn VUE Green Line</span></a> was the first hybrid passenger vehicle from GM and is also a mild design. GM has hinted at new hybrid technologies to be employed that will be optimized for higher speeds in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freeway" title="Freeway"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">freeway</span></a> driving. Future hybrid vehicles should include the 2007 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet_Tahoe" title="Chevrolet Tahoe"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">GMC Yukon</span></a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn_Aura#Aura_Green_Line" title="Saturn Aura"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Saturn Aura</span></a>, and an updated <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn_VUE#Second_Generation" title="Saturn VUE"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Saturn VUE</span></a> based an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opel" title="Opel"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Opel</span></a> design like the Saturn Aura. GM has recently introduced the concept Chevrolet Volt which is a plug-in hybrid. GM currently offers two types of hybrid systems. The first used in the Silverado Hybrid, Saturn VUE, Saturn Aura, and Chevrolet <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Malibu</st1:place></st1:city> is what GM calls a "Mild Hybrid" or "BAS" system. The second hybrid drive was co-developed with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DaimlerChrysler" title="DaimlerChrysler"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">DaimlerChrysler</span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMW" title="BMW"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">BMW</span></a>, is called a "two-mode hybrid." The two-mode is used by the Chevrolet Tahoe/GMC <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on">Yukon</st1:place></st1:state> and will later be used on the Saturn VUE.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">GM’s current hybrid models:<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="text-align: justify;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">2006-2007 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn_VUE#Green_Line" title="Saturn VUE"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Saturn VUE Green Line Hybrid</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">2008 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn_VUE#Second_Generation" title="Saturn VUE"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Saturn VUE Green Line Hybrid</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">2008 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn_Aura#Aura_Green_Line" title="Saturn Aura"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Saturn Aura Green Line Hybrid</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">2008 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet_Tahoe" title="Chevrolet Tahoe"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">GMC Yukon Hybrid</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">2008 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet_Malibu#Sixth_Generation_2008-future" title="Chevrolet Malibu"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Chevrolet Malibu Hybrid</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">GM Magic Bus</span></i><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> is a hybrid powered bus.<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_note-15#_note-15" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[16]</span></a></sup><o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><h4 style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><a name="Hydrogen_initiative"></a><span class="editsection"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=General_Motors&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Hydrogen initiative"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">edit</span></a>]</span></i></span><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <span class="mw-headline">Hydrogen initiative</span><o:p></o:p></span></i></h4><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">GM has prided its research and prototype development of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_vehicle" title="Hydrogen vehicle"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">hydrogen powered vehicles</span></a>, to be produced in early 2010, using a support infrastructure still in a prototype state. The economic feasibility of the technically challenging hydrogen car, and the low-cost production of hydrogen to fuel it, has also been discussed by other automobile manufacturers such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford" title="Ford"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Ford</span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysler" title="Chrysler"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Chrysler</span></a>. In June 2007, Larry Burns, vice president of research and development, said he's not yet willing to say exactly when hydrogen vehicles will be mass produced, but he said it should happen before 2020, the year many experts have predicted. He said "I sure would be disappointed if we weren't there" before 2020. <sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_note-16#_note-16" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[17]</span></a></sup><o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><h4 style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><a name="GM_Flexfuel"></a><span class="editsection"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=General_Motors&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: GM Flexfuel"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">edit</span></a>]</span></i></span><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <span class="mw-headline">GM Flexfuel</span><o:p></o:p></span></i></h4><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">GM, more than any other automaker, is producing Flexfuel vehicles that can operate on ethanol gasoline, or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E85" title="E85"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">E85</span></a>. GM has over 2 million FlexFuel Vehicles on the road today in all 50 states. E85 is a mostly renewable fuel that can be made from U.S.-grown biomass (like corn or grain products) and helps reduce <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">U.S.</st1:place></st1:country-region> dependence on foreign petroleum. Although availability is currently limited, U.S.-made E85 is gradually becoming more available to <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">U.S.</st1:place></st1:country-region> consumers.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><h2 style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><a name="Corporate_restructuring"></a><span class="editsection"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=General_Motors&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Corporate restructuring"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">edit</span></a>]</span></i></span><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <span class="mw-headline">Corporate restructuring</span><o:p></o:p></span></i></h2><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">After gaining market share in the late 1990s and making enormous profits General Motors stock soared to over $80 a share. However, in 2000, twelve successive interest rate hikes by the Federal Reserve led to a severe stock market decline following the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_11%2C_2001_attacks" title="September 11, 2001 attacks"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">September 11, 2001 attacks</span></a>, caused a pension and benefit funds crisis at General Motors and many other American companies. General Motor's rising retiree health care costs and Other Post Employment Benefit (OPEB) fund deficit prompted the company to enact a broad restructuring plan. Although GM had already taken action to fully fund its pension plan, its OPEB fund became an issue for its corporate bond ratings. GM had expressed its disagreement with the bond ratings; moveover, GM's benefit funds were performing at higher than expected rates of return. Then, following a $10.6 billion loss in 2005, GM acted quickly to implement its restructuring plan. For the first quarter of 2006 GM earned $400 million, signaling a turnaround had already begun even though many aspects of the restructuring plan had not yet taken effect. Although retiree health care costs remain a significant issue, General Motors' investment strategy has generated a $17.1 billion surplus in 2007 in its $101 billion U.S pension fund portfolio, a $35 billion reversal from its $17.8 billion of underfunding.<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_note-17#_note-17" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[18]</span></a></sup><o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">In February 2005, GM successfully bought itself out of a put option with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiat" title="Fiat"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Fiat</span></a> for $2 billion USD (€1.55 billion). In 2000, GM had sold a 6% stake to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiat" title="Fiat"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Fiat</span></a> in return for a 20% share in the Italian automaker. As part of the deal, GM granted <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiat" title="Fiat"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Fiat</span></a> a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Put_option" title="Put option"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">put option</span></a> which, if exercised between January 2004 and July 2009, could have forced GM to buy <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiat" title="Fiat"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Fiat</span></a>. GM had agreed to the put option at the time, perhaps to keep it from being acquired by another automaker such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DaimlerChrysler" title="DaimlerChrysler"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">DaimlerChrysler</span></a> competing with GM's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opel" title="Opel"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Opel</span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vauxhall" title="Vauxhall"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Vauxhall</span></a> marques. The relationship suffered, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiat" title="Fiat"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Fiat</span></a> had failed to improve. In 2003, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiat" title="Fiat"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Fiat</span></a> recapitalized, reducing GM's stake to 10%.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">In February 2006, GM slashed its annual dividend from 2.00 to $1.00 per share. The reduction saved $565 million a year.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">In March 2006, GM divested 92.36 million shares (reducing their stake from 20% to 3%) of Japanese manufacturer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzuki" title="Suzuki"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Suzuki</span></a>, in order to raise $2.3 billion. GM originally invested in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzuki" title="Suzuki"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Suzuki</span></a> in the early 1980s.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">On <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_23" title="March 23"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">March 23</span></a>, a private equity consortium including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KKR" title="KKR"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">KKR</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldman_Sachs" title="Goldman Sachs"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Goldman Sachs</span></a> Capital, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Five_Mile_Capital&action=edit" title="Five Mile Capital"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Five Mile Capital</span></a> purchased $8.8 billion, or 78% of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GMAC" title="GMAC"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">GMAC</span></a>, GM's commercial mortgage arm. The new entity, in which GMAC will own a 21% stake, will be known as Capmark Financial Group.<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_note-18#_note-18" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[19]</span></a></sup><o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">On <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_3" title="April 3"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">April 3</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006" title="2006"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">2006</span></a>, GM announced that it would sell 51% of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GMAC" title="GMAC"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">GMAC</span></a> as a whole to a consortium led by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerberus_Capital_Management" title="Cerberus Capital Management"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Cerberus Capital Management</span></a>, raising $14 billion over 3 years. Investors also include <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citigroup" title="Citigroup"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Citigroup</span></a>'s private equity arm and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aozora_Bank" title="Aozora Bank"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Aozora Bank</span></a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Japan</span></a>. The group will pay GM $7.4 billion in cash at closing. GM will retain approximately $20 billion in automobile financing worth an estimated $4 billion over three years.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">GM sold its 8% stake in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isuzu" title="Isuzu"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Isuzu</span></a> on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_11" title="April 11"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">April 11</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006" title="2006"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">2006</span></a>, to raise an additional $300 million.<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_note-19#_note-19" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[20]</span></a></sup>12,600 workers from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delphi_%28auto_parts%29" title="Delphi (auto parts)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Delphi</span></a>, a key supplier to GM, agreed to buyouts and an early retirement plan offered by GM in order to avoid a strike, after a judge agreed to cancel <st1:place st="on">Delphi</st1:place>'s union contracts. 5,000 <st1:place st="on">Delphi</st1:place> workers were allowed to flow to GM.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">On <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_28" title="June 28"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">June 28</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007" title="2007"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">2007</span></a>, GM agreed to sell its <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allison_Transmission" title="Allison Transmission"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Allison Transmission</span></a> division to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private-equity" title="Private-equity"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">private-equity</span></a> firms <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlyle_Group" title="Carlyle Group"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Carlyle Group</span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onex" title="Onex"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Onex</span></a> for $5.1 billion. The deal will increase GM's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquidity" title="Liquidity"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">liquidity</span></a> and echoes previous moves to shift its focus towards its core automotive business. The two firms will control seven factories around <st1:city st="on">Indianapolis</st1:city> but GM will retain management of a factory in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Baltimore</span></a>. Former <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allison_Transmission" title="Allison Transmission"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Allison Transmission</span></a> president <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lawrence_E._Dewey&action=edit" title="Lawrence E. Dewey"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Lawrence E. Dewey</span></a> will be the new CEO of the standalone company.<a href="http://online.wsj.com/article/SB118303669648651430-search.html?KEYWORDS=gm+allison&COLLECTION=wsjie/6month" title="http://online.wsj.com/article/SB118303669648651430-search.html?KEYWORDS=gm+allison&COLLECTION=wsjie/6month"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">[14]</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">As GM opens new plants, those scheduled to close under the planned GM restructuring include (<span style="">source: General Motors Corporation</span>):<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><table class="MsoNormalTable" style="border: medium none ; background: rgb(249, 249, 249) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; border-collapse: collapse; text-align: left; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px;" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr style=""> <td style="border: 1pt solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">Plants</span></i></b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: solid solid solid none; border-color: rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">Location</span></i></b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: solid solid solid none; border-color: rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">Closing</span></i></b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: solid solid solid none; border-color: rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">Role</span></i></b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: solid solid solid none; border-color: rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"># Employees</span></i></b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170); border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moraine_Assembly" title="Moraine Assembly"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Moraine Assembly</span></a> (3rd shift)<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">Ohio</span></i></st1:place></st1:state><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">2006<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">Mid-size <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SUV" title="SUV"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">SUV</span></a> assembly<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">4,165<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170); border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oklahoma_City_Assembly" title="Oklahoma City Assembly"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Oklahoma City Assembly</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">Oklahoma</span></i></st1:place></st1:state><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">Early 2006<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">Mid-size <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truck" title="Truck"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">trucks</span></a> and SUV assembly<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">2,734<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170); border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lansing_Craft_Centre" title="Lansing Craft Centre"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Lansing Craft Centre</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">Michigan</span></i></st1:place></st1:state><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">Mid-2006<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet_SSR" title="Chevrolet SSR"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Chevrolet SSR</span></a> roadster assembly<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">398<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170); border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_Hill_Manufacturing" title="Spring Hill Manufacturing"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Spring Hill Manufacturing</span></a> Line 1<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">Tennessee</span></i></st1:place></st1:state><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">March 2007<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn_ION" title="Saturn ION"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Saturn ION</span></a> sedan and coupe assembly<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">5,776<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170); border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doraville_Assembly" title="Doraville Assembly"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Doraville Assembly</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">Georgia</span></i></st1:place></st1:country-region><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">2008<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minivan" title="Minivan"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Minivan</span></a> assembly<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">3,076<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170); border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lansing_Metal_Center&action=edit" title="Lansing Metal Center"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Lansing Metal Center</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">Michigan</span></i></st1:place></st1:state><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">2006<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">Metal fabricating<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">1,398<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170); border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Portland_Distribution_Center&action=edit" title="Portland Distribution Center"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Portland Distribution Center</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">Oregon</span></i></st1:place></st1:state><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">2006<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">Parts distribution<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">95<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170); border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saint_Louis_Distribution_Center&action=edit" title="Saint Louis Distribution Center"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Saint Louis Distribution Center</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">Missouri</span></i></st1:place></st1:state><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">2006<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">Parts distribution<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">182<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170); border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pittsburgh_Metal&action=edit" title="Pittsburgh Metal"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Pittsburgh Metal</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">Pennsylvania</span></i></st1:place></st1:state><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">2007<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">Metal fabricating<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">613<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170); border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ypsilanti_Processing_Center&action=edit" title="Ypsilanti Processing Center"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Ypsilanti Processing Center</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">Michigan</span></i></st1:place></st1:state><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">2007<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">Parts processing<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">278<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170); border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flint_North" title="Flint North"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Flint North</span></a> 3800<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">Michigan</span></i></st1:place></st1:state><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">2008<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">Engines<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color rgb(170, 170, 170) rgb(170, 170, 170) -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 2.4pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";">2,677<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> </tr> </tbody></table><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><h2 style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><a name="See_also"></a><span class="editsection"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=General_Motors&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">edit</span></a>]</span></i></span><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <span class="mw-headline">See also</span><o:p></o:p></span></i></h2><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><h3 style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><a name="People"></a><span class="editsection"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=General_Motors&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: People"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">edit</span></a>]</span></i></span><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <span class="mw-headline">People</span><o:p></o:p></span></i></h3><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="text-align: justify;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_P._Sloan" title="Alfred P. Sloan"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Alfred P. Sloan</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Kettering" title="Charles Kettering"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Charles Kettering</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><h3 style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><a name="Books_and_films"></a><span class="editsection"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=General_Motors&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Books and films"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">edit</span></a>]</span></i></span><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <span class="mw-headline">Books and films</span><o:p></o:p></span></i></h3><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="text-align: justify;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Final_Offer_%28film%29" title="Final Offer (film)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Final Offer</span></a></span></i><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> - A documentary film that shows the 1984 GM contract negotiations, that would result in the union split of the Canadian arm of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UAW" title="UAW"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">UAW</span></a>. A very interesting inside look at union negotiations. <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_%26_Me" title="Roger & Me"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Roger & Me</span></a></span></i><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> - the first documentary by filmmaker <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Moore" title="Michael Moore"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Michael Moore</span></a>. The film criticizes General Motors for closing down its factories in <st1:city st="on">Moore</st1:city>'s hometown of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flint%2C_Michigan" title="Flint, Michigan"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Flint, Michigan</span></a>, despite record profits. After <st1:city st="on">Flint</st1:city> residents lose their many jobs at GM, <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Moore</st1:place></st1:city> claims the town descends into economic chaos. <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Who_Killed_the_Electric_Car%3F" title="Who Killed the Electric Car?"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Who Killed the Electric Car?</span></a></span></i><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> - A documentary film charting GM's launch, then alleged self-sabotage of the electric car <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EV1" title="EV1"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">EV1</span></a>. <o:p></o:p></span></i></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><h3 style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><a name="Brands"></a><span class="editsection"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=General_Motors&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Brands"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">edit</span></a>]</span></i></span><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <span class="mw-headline">Brands</span><o:p></o:p></span></i></h3><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="text-align: justify;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acadian_%28automobile%29" title="Acadian (automobile)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Acadian</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/As%C3%BCna" title="Asüna"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Asüna</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acadian_%28automobile%29" title="Acadian (automobile)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Beaumont</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedford_Vehicles" title="Bedford Vehicles"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Bedford</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buick" title="Buick"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Buick</span></a>* <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadillac" title="Cadillac"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Cadillac</span></a>* <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet" title="Chevrolet"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Chevrolet</span></a>* <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet_Corvette" title="Chevrolet Corvette"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Corvette</span></a> (as a stand-alone brand in Europe and <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region>) * <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GM_Daewoo" title="GM Daewoo"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Daewoo</span></a> (affiliate) * <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elmore_%28automobile%29" title="Elmore (automobile)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Elmore</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geo_%28automobile%29" title="Geo (automobile)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Geo</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GMC_%28General_Motors_division%29" title="GMC (General Motors division)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">GMC</span></a>* <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holden" title="Holden"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Holden</span></a>* <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holden_Special_Vehicles" title="Holden Special Vehicles"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">HSV</span></a>* <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hummer" title="Hummer"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Hummer</span></a>* <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LaSalle" title="LaSalle"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">LaSalle</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marquette_automobile" title="Marquette automobile"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Marquette</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakland_automobile" title="Oakland automobile"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Oakland</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldsmobile" title="Oldsmobile"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Oldsmobile</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opel" title="Opel"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Opel</span></a>* <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontiac" title="Pontiac"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Pontiac</span></a>* <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranger_%28automobile%29" title="Ranger (automobile)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Ranger</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saab_Automobile" title="Saab Automobile"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Saab</span></a>* <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn_Corporation" title="Saturn Corporation"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Saturn</span></a>* <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statesman_%28automobile%29" title="Statesman (automobile)"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Statesman</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vauxhall_Motors" title="Vauxhall Motors"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Vauxhall</span></a>* <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_automobile" title="Viking automobile"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Viking</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">(*) Signifies the brand is active<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><h3 style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><a name="Other_related_topics"></a><span class="editsection"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=General_Motors&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Other related topics"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">edit</span></a>]</span></i></span><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <span class="mw-headline">Other related topics</span><o:p></o:p></span></i></h3><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="text-align: justify;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_streetcar_conspiracy" title="General Motors streetcar conspiracy"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">General Motors streetcar conspiracy</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><h3 style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><a name="Subsidiaries"></a><span class="editsection"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=General_Motors&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Subsidiaries"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">edit</span></a>]</span></i></span><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <span class="mw-headline">Subsidiaries</span><o:p></o:p></span></i></h3><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="text-align: justify;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisher_Body" title="Fisher Body"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Fisher Body</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Acceptance_Corporation" title="General Motors Acceptance Corporation"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">General Motors Acceptance Corporation</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Canada" title="General Motors Canada"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">General Motors Canada</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_Motor_Corporation" title="Delta Motor Corporation"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">General Motors South Africa</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GM_Daewoo" title="GM Daewoo"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">GM Daewoo</span></a> (50.9%) <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GM_Europe" title="GM Europe"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">GM Europe</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OnStar" title="OnStar"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">OnStar</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_GM" title="Shanghai GM"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Shanghai GM</span></a> (50%) <o:p></o:p></span></i></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><h3 style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><a name="Divisions"></a><span class="editsection"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=General_Motors&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Divisions"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">edit</span></a>]</span></i></span><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <span class="mw-headline">Divisions</span><o:p></o:p></span></i></h3><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="text-align: justify;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=AC_Delco&action=edit" title="AC Delco"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">AC Delco</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allison_Transmission" title="Allison Transmission"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Allison Transmission</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GM_Performance_Division" title="GM Performance Division"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">GM Performance Division</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><h3 style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><a name="Umbrella_organization"></a><span class="editsection"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=General_Motors&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Umbrella organization"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">edit</span></a>]</span></i></span><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <span class="mw-headline">Umbrella organization</span><o:p></o:p></span></i></h3><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="text-align: justify;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Council_for_Automotive_Research" title="United States Council for Automotive Research"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">United States Council for Automotive Research</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><h3 style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><a name="Categories"></a><span class="editsection"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=General_Motors&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Categories"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">edit</span></a>]</span></i></span><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <span class="mw-headline">Categories</span><o:p></o:p></span></i></h3><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="text-align: justify;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_GM_platforms" title="List of GM platforms"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">List of GM platforms</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_GM_engines" title="List of GM engines"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">List of GM engines</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_GM_transmissions" title="List of GM transmissions"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">List of GM transmissions</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_GM_factories" title="List of GM factories"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">List of GM factories</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_GM_VIN_codes" title="List of GM VIN codes"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">List of GM VIN codes</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:General_Motors_vehicles" title="Category:General Motors vehicles"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">GM vehicles by brand</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribrid" title="Tribrid"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Tribrid</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><h2 style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><a name="References"></a><span class="editsection"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=General_Motors&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: References"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">edit</span></a>]</span></i></span><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <span class="mw-headline">References</span><o:p></o:p></span></i></h2><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><span style="">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_ref-0#_ref-0" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">^</span></a></span></i></b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <a href="http://www.gm.com/company/corp_info/" title="http://www.gm.com/company/corp_info/"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">General Motors Corporate Information</span></a>. Retrieved on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_22" title="July 22"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">July 22</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007" title="2007"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">2007</span></a>. <o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><span style="">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_ref-1#_ref-1" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">^</span></a></span></i></b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <a href="http://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/40730/000095012407001502/k11916e10vk.htm#111" title="http://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/40730/000095012407001502/k11916e10vk.htm#111"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">General Motors Corporation Annual Report</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><span style="">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_ref-2#_ref-2" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">^</span></a></span></i></b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <a href="http://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/40730/000095012407001502/k11916e10vk.htm#111" title="http://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/40730/000095012407001502/k11916e10vk.htm#111"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">General Motors Corporation Annual Report</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><span style="">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_ref-3#_ref-3" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">^</span></a></span></i></b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <a href="http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/19868815" title="http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/19868815"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Toyota slips behind GM in second quarter</span></a>. <span style=""><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSNBC" title="MSNBC"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">MSNBC</span></a></span>. Retrieved on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_20" title="July 20"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">July 20</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007" title="2007"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">2007</span></a>. <o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><span style="">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_ref-4#_ref-4" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">^</span></a></span></i></b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <a href="http://www.purdue.edu/UNS/html3month/020926.PACE.gift.html" title="http://www.purdue.edu/UNS/html3month/020926.PACE.gift.html"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">$116 million PACE gift puts Purdue students in drivers' seat (September 26, 2006)</span></a> <span style="">Purdue News</span>. Retrieved on May 8, 2007. <o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><span style="">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_ref-5#_ref-5" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">^</span></a></span></i></b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> [<a href="https://www.uawgmjas.org/j/index.php?option=com_frontpage&Itemid=1" title="https://www.uawgmjas.org/j/index.php?option=com_frontpage&Itemid=1"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">https://www.uawgmjas.org/j/index.php?option=com_frontpage&Itemid=1</span></a> "Welcome to the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">UAW-GM</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Center</st1:placetype></st1:place> for Human Resources". <span style="">UAW-GM Joint Activity System</span>. Retrieved on June 19, 2007. <o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><span style="">7.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_ref-6#_ref-6" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">^</span></a></span></i></b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> Sloan, Allan (April 10, 2007).<a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/04/09/AR2007040901262.html" title="http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/04/09/AR2007040901262.html"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">GM's High-Performance Pension Machine</span></a> <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on"><span style="">Washington</span></st1:place></st1:state><span style=""> Post</span>, D02. <o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><span style="">8.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_ref-7#_ref-7" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">^</span></a></span></i></b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <a href="http://www.detnews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060105/AUTO01/601050436/1148" title="http://www.detnews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060105/AUTO01/601050436/1148"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">GM becomes top-selling foreign automaker in China</span></a>. <span style=""><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit_News" title="Detroit News"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Detroit News</span></a></span>. Retrieved on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_10" title="April 10"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">April 10</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007" title="2007"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">2007</span></a>. <o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><span style="">9.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_ref-8#_ref-8" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">^</span></a></span></i></b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> Lindorff, Dave (April 19, 2005).<a href="http://www.counterpunch.org/lindorff04192005.html" title="http://www.counterpunch.org/lindorff04192005.html"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Health Care Costs and the Jobs Flight to Canada</span></a> <span style="">Counterpunch</span>. Retrieved on April 24, 2007. <o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><span style="">10.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_ref-9#_ref-9" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">^</span></a></span></i></b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <cite><i style="">(10 Jan 2000) "D/C leaves lobby group (Auto news: digest)". </i></cite><cite><i>Automotive News</i></cite><cite><i style=""> <b>74</b>: 4.</i></cite><span class="z3988"> </span> <o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><span style="">11.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_ref-10#_ref-10" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">^</span></a></span></i></b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <cite><i style="">(July/Aug 2003) "Arctic Mayhem, Contrails and Climate, and Dirty Diesels". </i></cite><cite><i>E Magazine: The Environmental Magazine</i></cite><cite><i style=""> <b>14</b>: 64.</i></cite><span class="z3988"> </span> <o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><span style="">12.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_ref-11#_ref-11" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">^</span></a></span></i></b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <a href="http://www.kpcnews.com/articles/2007/07/27/greater_fort_wayne/news/doc46a9e1f76229a445366384.txt" title="http://www.kpcnews.com/articles/2007/07/27/greater_fort_wayne/news/doc46a9e1f76229a445366384.txt"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">http://www.kpcnews.com/articles/2007/07/27/greater_fort_wayne/news/doc46a9e1f76229a445366384.txt</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><span style="">13.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_ref-12#_ref-12" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">^</span></a></span></i></b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <a href="http://www.peri.umass.edu/Toxic-100-Table.265.0.html" title="http://www.peri.umass.edu/Toxic-100-Table.265.0.html"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Political Economy Research Institute</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><span style="">14.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_ref-13#_ref-13" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">^</span></a></span></i></b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <a href="http://www.publicintegrity.org/superfund/ListCompany.aspx" title="http://www.publicintegrity.org/superfund/ListCompany.aspx"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">EPA document archived by Center for Public Integrity</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><span style="">15.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_ref-14#_ref-14" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">^</span></a></span></i></b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <a href="http://www.publicintegrity.org/Superfund/Company.aspx?act=7189" title="http://www.publicintegrity.org/Superfund/Company.aspx?act=7189"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Center for Public Integrity file on GM</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><span style="">16.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_ref-15#_ref-15" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">^</span></a></span></i></b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <a href="http://www.gm.com/company/gmability/adv_tech/300_hybrids/index_bus.html" title="http://www.gm.com/company/gmability/adv_tech/300_hybrids/index_bus.html"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">GM's Hybrid Propulsion System for Transit Buses</span></a>. Retrieved on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007" title="2007"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">2007</span></a>-<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_22" title="May 22"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">05-22</span></a>. <o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><span style="">17.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_ref-16#_ref-16" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">^</span></a></span></i></b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <a href="http://www.businessweek.com/ap/financialnews/D8PP9U4G0.htm" title="http://www.businessweek.com/ap/financialnews/D8PP9U4G0.htm"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">GM steps up work on hydrogen cars</span></a> TOM KRISHER, June 15, 2007, Business Week <o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><span style="">18.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_ref-17#_ref-17" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">^</span></a></span></i></b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> Sloan, Allan (April 10, 2007).<a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/04/09/AR2007040901262.html" title="http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/04/09/AR2007040901262.html"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">GM's High-Performance Pension Machine</span></a> <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on"><span style="">Washington</span></st1:place></st1:state><span style=""> Post</span>, D02. <o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><span style="">19.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_ref-18#_ref-18" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">^</span></a></span></i></b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <a href="http://www.freep.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060323/NEWS11/60323002" title="http://www.freep.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060323/NEWS11/60323002"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">article</span></a>. <span style=""><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit_Free_Press" title="Detroit Free Press"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Detroit Free Press</span></a></span>. Retrieved on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_23" title="March 23"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">March 23</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006" title="2006"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">2006</span></a>. <o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><span style="">20.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Corporation#_ref-19#_ref-19" title=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">^</span></a></span></i></b><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <a href="http://www.detnews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060411/UPDATE/604110423/1148/AUTO01" title="http://www.detnews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060411/UPDATE/604110423/1148/AUTO01"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">GM sells Isuzu shares for $300 million</span></a>. <span style=""><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit_News" title="Detroit News"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Detroit News</span></a></span>. Retrieved on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006" title="2006"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">2006</span></a>-<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_12" title="April 12"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">04-12</span></a>. <o:p></o:p></span></i></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><h2 style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; text-align: justify;"><a name="Further_reading"></a><span class="editsection"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=General_Motors&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">edit</span></a>]</span></i></span><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN"> <span class="mw-headline">Further reading</span><o:p></o:p></span></i></h2><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="text-align: justify;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">Barabba, Vincent P. <span style="">Surviving Transformation: Lessons from GM's Surprising Turnaround</span> (2004) <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><st1:city st="on"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">Chandler</span></i></st1:city><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">, Alfred D., Jr., ed. <span style="">Giant <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Enterprise</st1:place></st1:city>: Ford, General Motors, and the Automobile Industry</span> 1964. <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">Cray, Ed. <span style="">Chrome Colossus: General Motors and Its Times.</span> 1980. <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">Farber, David. <span style="">Sloan Rules: Alfred P. Sloan and the Triumph of General Motors</span> U of <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Chicago</st1:place></st1:city> Press 2002 <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">Gustin, <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Lawrence</st1:place></st1:city> R. <span style="">Billy Durant: Creator of General Motors</span> , 1973. <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">Halberstam, David. <span style="">The Reckoning</span> (1986) detailed reporting on the crises of 1973-mid 1980s <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">Keller, Maryann. <span style="">Rude Awakening: The Rise, Fall, and Struggle for Recovery of General Motors</span>, 1989. <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">Leslie, Stuart W. <span style="">Boss <st1:city st="on">Kettering</st1:city>: Wizard of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">General</st1:placename> <st1:placename st="on">Motors</st1:placename><span style=""> <st1:placename st="on">Columbia</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype></span></st1:place><span style=""> Press, 1983. <o:p></o:p></span></span></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">Maxton, Graeme P. and John Wormald, <span style="">Time for a Model Change: Re-engineering the Global Automotive Industry</span> (2004) <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">Maynard, Micheline. <span style="">The End of <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Detroit</st1:place></st1:city>: How the Big Three Lost Their Grip on the American Car Market</span> (2003) <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">Rae, John B. <span style="">The American Automobile: A Brief History</span>. <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Chicago</st1:placename></st1:place> Press, 1965. <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">Sloan, Alfred P., Jr. <span style="">My Years with General Motors</span>, 1963. <o:p></o:p></span></i></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";" lang="EN">Weisberger, Bernard A. <span style="">The Dream Maker: William C. Durant, Founder of General Motors</span> , 1979<o:p></o:p></span></i></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="text-align: justify;" class="MsoNormal"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; font-family: "Bradley Hand ITC";"><o:p> </o:p></span></i></p>कविताhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00210732358968428325noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6041784366759394807.post-82953017755240185642007-09-01T12:54:00.001-07:002007-09-01T12:54:42.424-07:00वाल्मीकि-रामायण कम्प्यूटर की कसौटी पर !<br />श्री राम के जन्म के विषय में विभिन्न धारणायें प्रचलित हैं। आधुनिक कम्प्यूटर युगीन विद्वानों को छोड़ कर लगभग सभी धर्मनिष्ठ व्यक्ति, ‘रामचरित मानस’ के रचयिता तुलसीदास, ‘रामायण’ के रचयिता आदि कवि वाल्मीकि तथा पुराण आदि इस बात में एक-सम्मत हैं कि श्री राम त्रेता युग में अवतरित हुए थे। त्रेता युग कितना पुरातन है, यह जानने के लिये अन्य युगों की जानकारी असंगत नहीं होगी। चार युगों की अवधि इस प्रकार मानी गई हैः सत्ययुगः १,७२८,०००(1,728,000) वर्ष; त्रेतायुगः १,२९६,०००(1,296,000) वर्ष; द्वापरयुगः ८६४,०००(864,000) वर्ष; कलियुगः ४३,२००० वर्ष कलियुग अभी अपने शैशव काल में ही है और केवल ५००६(5006) वर्ष ही लांघ कर वर्तमान में अपने रंग दिखा रहा है। इन आंकड़ों के आधार पर त्रेतायुग आज से ९२,५०६(92,506) वर्ष पहले समाप्त हुआ और श्री राम ने भी ९२,५०६(92,506) वर्ष पूर्व ही जन्म लिया होगा। यह काल भी निर्णयात्मक रूप से नहीं कहा जा सकता क्योंकि ‘मत्स्य पुराण’ के अनुसार रामायण-काल की घटनाएं २४वें ‘महायुग’ में निर्धारित की गई हैं। उक्त चारों युगों की आयु के योग को एक महायुग माना गया है, जिसका अर्थ है किः १ महायुग (१७२,८००० + १,२९६,००० + ८६४,००० + ४३,२०००) = ४,३२०,००० {(172,8000+1,296,000+864,000+43,2000)=4,320,000)}वर्ष का हुआ। यह ज्ञात होना आवश्यक है कि वर्तमान २८वां(28th) महायुग चल रहा है। ‘मत्स्य पुराण’ के अनुसार राम-काल से अब तक ४ युग व्यतीत हो चुके हैं। स्पष्ट है, राम के जीवनकाल को लगभग ४ x ४,३२०,००० = १७,२८०,००० (4×4,320,000=17,280,000)वर्ष बीत गये हैं। इसी भूलभुलैय्या में एक भटकी हुई धारणा के अनुसार राम-जन्म का समय १७८१२ (17812) वर्ष पूर्व बताया गया है। डा. प.व. वर्तक रामायाण काल को ७३२३ ईस्वी.पूर्व मानते हैं। यदि अपने स्थानीय छोटे से मन्दिर के पुजारी से पूछें तो वे अटपटा सा उत्तर दे कर विषय को समाप्त करने का प्रयत्न करेंगेः अजी, दस हजार से अधिक बात है किन्तु वैसे तो भगवान श्री राम जी अनादि हैं, अनन्त हैं। उनका आदि तथा अन्त के पूछने से भी पाप लगता है। ‘जय सिया राम’ कहो भाई!! प्रश्न है कि क्या इन में कोई भी प्रमाण मिलता है। उत्तर सीधा सा हैः ‘ नहीं! इन में कोई भी तर्कयुक्त अनुसंधानिक प्रमाण दिखाई नहीं देता। इन चार युगों और महा-युगों से थोड़ा निकल कर, आज के विज्ञान और आधुनिक कम्प्यूटर के युग में इसी विषय पर श्री पुष्कर भटनागर के शोध-कार्य पर दृष्टि डालें तो एक नई दिशा मिलती है। पुष्कर जी भारत में इन्लैंड रेवेन्यु विभाग में कार्य-रत हैं। उनके इस आश्चर्य-करने वाली खोज का ऋषि वाल्मीकि और उनकी रामायण से सीधा सम्बन्ध है। यह कहना उचित होगा कि वाल्मीकि स्वयं गणित-ज्योतिष, वेदांग-ज्योतिष विद्या, आकाशीय चन्द्र, सूर्य आदि नक्षत्रों और ग्रहों की गातियां तथा उनके काल-विभाजन का ज्ञान और खगोल विज्ञान के प्रकाण्ड पण्डित थे। इस ज्ञान का उन्होंने रामायण की रचना में बड़ी निपुणता से अपनी काव्य-कला में उपयोग किया है। वाल्मीकि श्री राम के समकालीन थे तथा उनकी जीवन घटनाओं से पूर्णरूपेन परिचित थे। कुछ लगों का कहना है कि राजाओं में अपनी जीवनी राज कवियों द्वारा लिखवाने का पुराना प्रचलन है जिसमें तथ्यों को दबा कर राजा के आदर्शों को उभारने के लिये आद्यंत अतिशयोक्ति का प्रयोग किया जाता था। किन्तु वाल्मीकि की रामायण के विषय में यह लागू नहीं होता क्योंकि वे ना तो राज-कवि थे और ना ही राज्य-ॠषि अथवा राज्य-गुरु थे। उनका अपना आश्रम था जिसे वे स्वाधीनता से चलाते थे। राजा से त्यक्त सीता को आश्रय देना इस का प्रमाण है। इस लिये रामायण में जो भी अतिरंजित भाग मिलता है, वह काव्य-कला के अनुरूप मान्य है। पुष्कर भटनागर जी के प्रयास से उन्हें अमेरिका से एक कम्प्यूटर सॉफ्टवेयर “प्लैनिटेरियम” प्राप्त हुआ। इस सॉफ्टवेयर से सूर्य, चन्द्र, ग्रहण, नक्षत्रों और ग्रहों की स्थिति, दूरी, काल-समय आदि की जानकारी के लिये खगोल तथा अन्य सम्बन्धित वैज्ञानिक, अन्तरिक्ष-जिज्ञासु आदि इस सॉफ्टवेयर का प्रयोग करते हैं। पुष्कर जी ने इस सॉफ्ट्वेयर फलस्वरूप रामायण की घटनाओं की सार्थकता की जांच की है। इस दिशा में उनके शोध-कार्य की सफलता के कुछ नमूने निम्नलिखित हैं -<br />१). श्री राम का जन्मः-रामायण के बाल-काण्ड के १९वें सर्ग तथा ८वें और ९वें श्लोक में स्पष्ट रूप से कहा है कि श्री राम का जन्म चैत्र मास की नवम तिथि में हुआ था जिस में राशि-चक्र और नक्षत्र मण्डल की स्थिति ऐसी थी कि सूर्य मेष घर में, शनि तुला में, बृहस्पति कर्क में, शुक्र शनि में, मंगल ग्रह मकर में थे।चैत्र मास के शुक्ल पक्ष के नवम दिवस तथा कर्क लग्न में जब कर्क पूर्व में उदय हो रहा था, चन्द्रमा पुनर्वासु (पोलक्स स्टार) पर और दिन में लगभग दोपहर का समय था। ये आंकड़े ‘प्लैनिटेरियम’ में कम्प्यूटर द्वारा भर दिये गए। कम्प्यूटर के परिणामों ने चकित कर दिया। राशि, नक्षत्र, ग्रहों तथा तारा-मण्डल की स्थिति से सिद्ध हुआ कि श्री राम का जन्म १० जनवरी, ५११४ (10 January, 5114) ईसवी पूर्व जो भारतीय पञ्चांग के अनुसार चैत्र मास के शुक्ल पक्ष की नवमी के दोपहर के १२ (12)बजे और १ (1) बजे के मध्य का समय निकलता है। इस प्रकार श्री राम का जन्म लगभग ७१२० (7120) वर्ष पूर्व हुआ था।श्री राम अनुज लक्षमण को ले कर १३वें (13th) वर्ष में ऋषि विश्वमित्र के साथ तपोवन में गये थे। वहां से राजा जनक की राजधानी मिथिला में प्रवेश किया जहां राजकुमारी सीता के साथ उनका विवाह सम्पन्न हुआ। वाल्मीकि ने इस यात्रा-मार्ग में २३ (23) स्थानों का उल्लेख किया है जिन में शृंगी आश्रम, राम घाट, ताड़का वन, सिद्धाश्रम, गौतमाश्रम, जनक पुर, सीता कुण्ड आदि सम्मलित हैं जहां आज भी उनके स्मारक-चिन्ह मिलते हैं। यह याद रहे कि स्थानों का नामकरण उन घटनाओं के पश्चात ही किया जाता है।<br />२). राम-बनवासः-अयोध्या काण्ड २।४।१८ (2/4/18) में स्पष्ट है कि राजा दशरथ ने राम के राज्याभिषेक का समय विद्वान पण्डितों तथा गुरु वसिष्ठ के निर्देशानुसार निश्चित किया था जिस समय सूर्य, चन्द्रमा और राहू राजा के रेवती नक्षत्र को इस प्रकार घेरे हुए थे जिस स्थिति में वे मृत्यु को प्राप्त होते हैं या षड़यन्त्र के शिकार होते हैं।राजा दशरथ की राशि मीन थी और नक्षत्र रेवती था। यही वह क्षण थे जब षड़यन्त्र द्वारा श्री राम को अयोध्या छोड़ कर १४ वर्ष का बनवास मिला। रामायण के अनुसार उस समय श्री राम की आयु २५ वर्ष थी। प्लैनिटेरियम सॉफ्टवेयर द्वारा इन आंकड़ों से सिद्ध होता है उस दिवस की तिथि ५ जनवरी ५०८९ ईसवी पूर्व (5 January 50890 ईसवी पूर्व तक २५ वर्ष ५ दिन(25 yrs. 5 days) बनते हैं जो वाल्मीकि के कथन की भी पुष्टि करती है।<br />३). खरदूषण से युद्धः-श्री राम के वनवास-काल के १३वें वर्ष के मध्य खरदूषण से उनका युद्ध हुआ था। उस समय रामायण में सूर्य-ग्रहण का उल्लेख मिलता है। वाल्मीकि यह भी लिखते हैं कि वह अमावस्य का दिन था तथा मंगल मध्य में था। एक ओर शुक्र एवं बुद्ध और दूसरी ओर सूर्य एवं शनि थे। कम्प्यूटर में यह आधार-सामग्री डालने पर परिणाम-स्वरूप ७ अक्तूबर, ५०७७ ई.पूर्व (7 October, 5077 ईसवी पूर्व) की तिथि प्राप्त हुई। साथ ही सूर्य ग्रहण और अमावस्या की स्थिति भी स्पष्ट थी। इतना ही नहीं बल्कि सूर्य-ग्रहण की दिशा भी मिलती है कि उस समय सूर्य ग्रहण पञ्चवटी से देखा जा सकता था।<br />४). रावण का वधः- रामायण में रावण के वध के समय नक्षत्रों की स्थिति वर्णन की गई है। इस आधार पर ‘प्लैनिटेरियम’ के अनुसार रावण की मृत्यु ४ दिसम्बर, ५०७६ (4 December, 5076) ईसवी पूर्व को हुई थी।<br />५). वन-वास की समाप्तिः-वन-वास की १४ (14) वर्षीय अवधि चैत्र मास के शुक्ल पक्ष की नवमी पर समाप्त होती है जो कम्प्यूटर के अनुसार २ जनवरी, ५०७५(2nd January, 5075) ईस्वी पूर्व थी। इस प्रकार अयोध्या लौटने के समय श्री राम की आयु ३९ वर्ष (39 years) की थी। इन सभी घटनाओं को अंक-गणित द्वारा परखें तो हर प्रकार से ताल-मेल ठीक बैठता है।‘प्लैनिटेरियम’ के अतिरिक्त और भी बातें हैं जो रामायण की अन्य घटनाओं और स्थान आदि पर भी दृष्टि डालना असंगत नहीं होगा।<br />६). समुद्र पर सेतु का निर्माणः-श्री राम की प्रेरणा से नल और नील अभियन्ताओं के पर्यवेक्षण में हनुमान आदि कुशल कार्य-कर्ताओं के प्रयास से सेतु-निर्माण का कार्य सम्पन्न हुआ था। एक अमेरिकन कम्पनी ने, जो समुद्री अन्वेषण के लिये कार्य कर रही है, इन्टरनेट पर कुछ मानव-कृत सेतु के चित्र दिये थे जिन में एक चाप आकार के पुल के अवशेष मन्नर खाड़ी में रामेश्वरम् तथा श्री लंका के मध्य डूबे हुए हैं। जिन पत्थरों का इस पुल में प्रयोग किया गया था, अनुमान है कि वे लगभग १,७००,००० वर्ष (1,700,000 yrs) पुराने थे। यह पुल कब बना था, इसके निर्माण-समय का अनुमान सन्देहात्मक है।<br />ऋषि वाल्मीकि के लिये दो शब्दः-कहा जाता है कि आरम्भ में वे दस्यु थे। अतः निर्भीकता का गुण उन में स्वतः ही आ गया था। जब उन्हें जीवन की सार्थकता का भान हुआ तो हृदय-परिवर्तन के साथ उचित-अनुचित का भेद समझ कर सत्य का साथ देते, चाहे राजा की अवज्ञा ही न करनी पड़े।राजा राम की त्याज्य गर्भवती सीता को बनैले पशुओं के मध्य वन में अकेली छोड़ दी गई, किन्तु किसी में भी साहस न था कि राजा के विरुद्ध उन्हें आश्रय दे दे। राजा से दण्डित प्राणी को, चाहे वह निर्दोष हो, शरण देने में किस का साहस था। वाल्मीकि ने औचित्य को वरीयता दे कर, सीता जी को केवल आश्रय ही नहीं दिया, उनको पुत्री कह कर सम्मानित किया। प्रत्यक्ष है कि वे समय से बहुत आगे थे। स्वयं निम्न जाति (दस्यु) के हो कर भी कर्म-परिवर्तन के आधार पर ऋषि-पद के स्तर को प्राप्त कर समाज की पुरानी धारणायें बदलने में सक्षम हुए। वे सच्चे रूप में क्रांतिकारी थे।महावीर शर्माकविताhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00210732358968428325noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6041784366759394807.post-39314063139349804762007-09-01T12:45:00.000-07:002007-09-01T12:48:03.361-07:00श्री राम जय राम जय जय रामवाल्मीकि-रामायण कम्प्यूटर की कसौटी पर !<br />श्री राम के जन्म के विषय में विभिन्न धारणायें प्रचलित हैं। आधुनिक कम्प्यूटर युगीन विद्वानों को छोड़ कर लगभग सभी धर्मनिष्ठ व्यक्ति, ‘रामचरित मानस’ के रचयिता तुलसीदास, ‘रामायण’ के रचयिता आदि कवि वाल्मीकि तथा पुराण आदि इस बात में एक-सम्मत हैं कि श्री राम त्रेता युग में अवतरित हुए थे। त्रेता युग कितना पुरातन है, यह जानने के लिये अन्य युगों की जानकारी असंगत नहीं होगी। चार युगों की अवधि इस प्रकार मानी गई हैः सत्ययुगः १,७२८,०००(1,728,000) वर्ष; त्रेतायुगः १,२९६,०००(1,296,000) वर्ष; द्वापरयुगः ८६४,०००(864,000) वर्ष; कलियुगः ४३,२००० वर्ष कलियुग अभी अपने शैशव काल में ही है और केवल ५००६(5006) वर्ष ही लांघ कर वर्तमान में अपने रंग दिखा रहा है। इन आंकड़ों के आधार पर त्रेतायुग आज से ९२,५०६(92,506) वर्ष पहले समाप्त हुआ और श्री राम ने भी ९२,५०६(92,506) वर्ष पूर्व ही जन्म लिया होगा। यह काल भी निर्णयात्मक रूप से नहीं कहा जा सकता क्योंकि ‘मत्स्य पुराण’ के अनुसार रामायण-काल की घटनाएं २४वें ‘महायुग’ में निर्धारित की गई हैं। उक्त चारों युगों की आयु के योग को एक महायुग माना गया है, जिसका अर्थ है किः १ महायुग (१७२,८००० + १,२९६,००० + ८६४,००० + ४३,२०००) = ४,३२०,००० {(172,8000+1,296,000+864,000+43,2000)=4,320,000)}वर्ष का हुआ। यह ज्ञात होना आवश्यक है कि वर्तमान २८वां(28th) महायुग चल रहा है। ‘मत्स्य पुराण’ के अनुसार राम-काल से अब तक ४ युग व्यतीत हो चुके हैं। स्पष्ट है, राम के जीवनकाल को लगभग ४ x ४,३२०,००० = १७,२८०,००० (4×4,320,000=17,280,000)वर्ष बीत गये हैं। इसी भूलभुलैय्या में एक भटकी हुई धारणा के अनुसार राम-जन्म का समय १७८१२ (17812) वर्ष पूर्व बताया गया है। डा. प.व. वर्तक रामायाण काल को ७३२३ ईस्वी.पूर्व मानते हैं। यदि अपने स्थानीय छोटे से मन्दिर के पुजारी से पूछें तो वे अटपटा सा उत्तर दे कर विषय को समाप्त करने का प्रयत्न करेंगेः अजी, दस हजार से अधिक बात है किन्तु वैसे तो भगवान श्री राम जी अनादि हैं, अनन्त हैं। उनका आदि तथा अन्त के पूछने से भी पाप लगता है। ‘जय सिया राम’ कहो भाई!! प्रश्न है कि क्या इन में कोई भी प्रमाण मिलता है। उत्तर सीधा सा हैः ‘ नहीं! इन में कोई भी तर्कयुक्त अनुसंधानिक प्रमाण दिखाई नहीं देता। इन चार युगों और महा-युगों से थोड़ा निकल कर, आज के विज्ञान और आधुनिक कम्प्यूटर के युग में इसी विषय पर श्री पुष्कर भटनागर के शोध-कार्य पर दृष्टि डालें तो एक नई दिशा मिलती है। पुष्कर जी भारत में इन्लैंड रेवेन्यु विभाग में कार्य-रत हैं। उनके इस आश्चर्य-करने वाली खोज का ऋषि वाल्मीकि और उनकी रामायण से सीधा सम्बन्ध है। यह कहना उचित होगा कि वाल्मीकि स्वयं गणित-ज्योतिष, वेदांग-ज्योतिष विद्या, आकाशीय चन्द्र, सूर्य आदि नक्षत्रों और ग्रहों की गातियां तथा उनके काल-विभाजन का ज्ञान और खगोल विज्ञान के प्रकाण्ड पण्डित थे। इस ज्ञान का उन्होंने रामायण की रचना में बड़ी निपुणता से अपनी काव्य-कला में उपयोग किया है। वाल्मीकि श्री राम के समकालीन थे तथा उनकी जीवन घटनाओं से पूर्णरूपेन परिचित थे। कुछ लगों का कहना है कि राजाओं में अपनी जीवनी राज कवियों द्वारा लिखवाने का पुराना प्रचलन है जिसमें तथ्यों को दबा कर राजा के आदर्शों को उभारने के लिये आद्यंत अतिशयोक्ति का प्रयोग किया जाता था। किन्तु वाल्मीकि की रामायण के विषय में यह लागू नहीं होता क्योंकि वे ना तो राज-कवि थे और ना ही राज्य-ॠषि अथवा राज्य-गुरु थे। उनका अपना आश्रम था जिसे वे स्वाधीनता से चलाते थे। राजा से त्यक्त सीता को आश्रय देना इस का प्रमाण है। इस लिये रामायण में जो भी अतिरंजित भाग मिलता है, वह काव्य-कला के अनुरूप मान्य है। पुष्कर भटनागर जी के प्रयास से उन्हें अमेरिका से एक कम्प्यूटर सॉफ्टवेयर “प्लैनिटेरियम” प्राप्त हुआ। इस सॉफ्टवेयर से सूर्य, चन्द्र, ग्रहण, नक्षत्रों और ग्रहों की स्थिति, दूरी, काल-समय आदि की जानकारी के लिये खगोल तथा अन्य सम्बन्धित वैज्ञानिक, अन्तरिक्ष-जिज्ञासु आदि इस सॉफ्टवेयर का प्रयोग करते हैं। पुष्कर जी ने इस सॉफ्ट्वेयर फलस्वरूप रामायण की घटनाओं की सार्थकता की जांच की है। इस दिशा में उनके शोध-कार्य की सफलता के कुछ नमूने निम्नलिखित हैं -<br />१). श्री राम का जन्मः-रामायण के बाल-काण्ड के १९वें सर्ग तथा ८वें और ९वें श्लोक में स्पष्ट रूप से कहा है कि श्री राम का जन्म चैत्र मास की नवम तिथि में हुआ था जिस में राशि-चक्र और नक्षत्र मण्डल की स्थिति ऐसी थी कि सूर्य मेष घर में, शनि तुला में, बृहस्पति कर्क में, शुक्र शनि में, मंगल ग्रह मकर में थे।चैत्र मास के शुक्ल पक्ष के नवम दिवस तथा कर्क लग्न में जब कर्क पूर्व में उदय हो रहा था, चन्द्रमा पुनर्वासु (पोलक्स स्टार) पर और दिन में लगभग दोपहर का समय था। ये आंकड़े ‘प्लैनिटेरियम’ में कम्प्यूटर द्वारा भर दिये गए। कम्प्यूटर के परिणामों ने चकित कर दिया। राशि, नक्षत्र, ग्रहों तथा तारा-मण्डल की स्थिति से सिद्ध हुआ कि श्री राम का जन्म १० जनवरी, ५११४ (10 January, 5114) ईसवी पूर्व जो भारतीय पञ्चांग के अनुसार चैत्र मास के शुक्ल पक्ष की नवमी के दोपहर के १२ (12)बजे और १ (1) बजे के मध्य का समय निकलता है। इस प्रकार श्री राम का जन्म लगभग ७१२० (7120) वर्ष पूर्व हुआ था।श्री राम अनुज लक्षमण को ले कर १३वें (13th) वर्ष में ऋषि विश्वमित्र के साथ तपोवन में गये थे। वहां से राजा जनक की राजधानी मिथिला में प्रवेश किया जहां राजकुमारी सीता के साथ उनका विवाह सम्पन्न हुआ। वाल्मीकि ने इस यात्रा-मार्ग में २३ (23) स्थानों का उल्लेख किया है जिन में शृंगी आश्रम, राम घाट, ताड़का वन, सिद्धाश्रम, गौतमाश्रम, जनक पुर, सीता कुण्ड आदि सम्मलित हैं जहां आज भी उनके स्मारक-चिन्ह मिलते हैं। यह याद रहे कि स्थानों का नामकरण उन घटनाओं के पश्चात ही किया जाता है।<br />२). राम-बनवासः-अयोध्या काण्ड २।४।१८ (2/4/18) में स्पष्ट है कि राजा दशरथ ने राम के राज्याभिषेक का समय विद्वान पण्डितों तथा गुरु वसिष्ठ के निर्देशानुसार निश्चित किया था जिस समय सूर्य, चन्द्रमा और राहू राजा के रेवती नक्षत्र को इस प्रकार घेरे हुए थे जिस स्थिति में वे मृत्यु को प्राप्त होते हैं या षड़यन्त्र के शिकार होते हैं।राजा दशरथ की राशि मीन थी और नक्षत्र रेवती था। यही वह क्षण थे जब षड़यन्त्र द्वारा श्री राम को अयोध्या छोड़ कर १४ वर्ष का बनवास मिला। रामायण के अनुसार उस समय श्री राम की आयु २५ वर्ष थी। प्लैनिटेरियम सॉफ्टवेयर द्वारा इन आंकड़ों से सिद्ध होता है उस दिवस की तिथि ५ जनवरी ५०८९ ईसवी पूर्व (5 January 50890 ईसवी पूर्व तक २५ वर्ष ५ दिन(25 yrs. 5 days) बनते हैं जो वाल्मीकि के कथन की भी पुष्टि करती है।<br />३). खरदूषण से युद्धः-श्री राम के वनवास-काल के १३वें वर्ष के मध्य खरदूषण से उनका युद्ध हुआ था। उस समय रामायण में सूर्य-ग्रहण का उल्लेख मिलता है। वाल्मीकि यह भी लिखते हैं कि वह अमावस्य का दिन था तथा मंगल मध्य में था। एक ओर शुक्र एवं बुद्ध और दूसरी ओर सूर्य एवं शनि थे। कम्प्यूटर में यह आधार-सामग्री डालने पर परिणाम-स्वरूप ७ अक्तूबर, ५०७७ ई.पूर्व (7 October, 5077 ईसवी पूर्व) की तिथि प्राप्त हुई। साथ ही सूर्य ग्रहण और अमावस्या की स्थिति भी स्पष्ट थी। इतना ही नहीं बल्कि सूर्य-ग्रहण की दिशा भी मिलती है कि उस समय सूर्य ग्रहण पञ्चवटी से देखा जा सकता था।<br />४). रावण का वधः- रामायण में रावण के वध के समय नक्षत्रों की स्थिति वर्णन की गई है। इस आधार पर ‘प्लैनिटेरियम’ के अनुसार रावण की मृत्यु ४ दिसम्बर, ५०७६ (4 December, 5076) ईसवी पूर्व को हुई थी।<br />५). वन-वास की समाप्तिः-वन-वास की १४ (14) वर्षीय अवधि चैत्र मास के शुक्ल पक्ष की नवमी पर समाप्त होती है जो कम्प्यूटर के अनुसार २ जनवरी, ५०७५(2nd January, 5075) ईस्वी पूर्व थी। इस प्रकार अयोध्या लौटने के समय श्री राम की आयु ३९ वर्ष (39 years) की थी। इन सभी घटनाओं को अंक-गणित द्वारा परखें तो हर प्रकार से ताल-मेल ठीक बैठता है।‘प्लैनिटेरियम’ के अतिरिक्त और भी बातें हैं जो रामायण की अन्य घटनाओं और स्थान आदि पर भी दृष्टि डालना असंगत नहीं होगा।<br />६). समुद्र पर सेतु का निर्माणः-श्री राम की प्रेरणा से नल और नील अभियन्ताओं के पर्यवेक्षण में हनुमान आदि कुशल कार्य-कर्ताओं के प्रयास से सेतु-निर्माण का कार्य सम्पन्न हुआ था। एक अमेरिकन कम्पनी ने, जो समुद्री अन्वेषण के लिये कार्य कर रही है, इन्टरनेट पर कुछ मानव-कृत सेतु के चित्र दिये थे जिन में एक चाप आकार के पुल के अवशेष मन्नर खाड़ी में रामेश्वरम् तथा श्री लंका के मध्य डूबे हुए हैं। जिन पत्थरों का इस पुल में प्रयोग किया गया था, अनुमान है कि वे लगभग १,७००,००० वर्ष (1,700,000 yrs) पुराने थे। यह पुल कब बना था, इसके निर्माण-समय का अनुमान सन्देहात्मक है।<br />ऋषि वाल्मीकि के लिये दो शब्दः-कहा जाता है कि आरम्भ में वे दस्यु थे। अतः निर्भीकता का गुण उन में स्वतः ही आ गया था। जब उन्हें जीवन की सार्थकता का भान हुआ तो हृदय-परिवर्तन के साथ उचित-अनुचित का भेद समझ कर सत्य का साथ देते, चाहे राजा की अवज्ञा ही न करनी पड़े।राजा राम की त्याज्य गर्भवती सीता को बनैले पशुओं के मध्य वन में अकेली छोड़ दी गई, किन्तु किसी में भी साहस न था कि राजा के विरुद्ध उन्हें आश्रय दे दे। राजा से दण्डित प्राणी को, चाहे वह निर्दोष हो, शरण देने में किस का साहस था। वाल्मीकि ने औचित्य को वरीयता दे कर, सीता जी को केवल आश्रय ही नहीं दिया, उनको पुत्री कह कर सम्मानित किया। प्रत्यक्ष है कि वे समय से बहुत आगे थे। स्वयं निम्न जाति (दस्यु) के हो कर भी कर्म-परिवर्तन के आधार पर ऋषि-पद के स्तर को प्राप्त कर समाज की पुरानी धारणायें बदलने में सक्षम हुए। वे सच्चे रूप में क्रांतिकारी थे।महावीर शर्माकविताhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00210732358968428325noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6041784366759394807.post-55834062423987142212007-08-29T08:52:00.000-07:002007-08-29T08:56:27.356-07:00लोक विचारतात परभणी बद्दल विशेष काय? काय सांगता ? परभणी म्हणजे.... जिथे लोकांनी British Dozen ला देशी 17 चा पर्याय शोधला जगात कुठेही 17 आंब्याचा हिशोब नाही ती परभणी...जिथे सर्व जग Globalisation च्या दिशेने जाताना आहे ती सूत गिरणी बंद पाडते ती परभणी....जिथे निजामशाहीत बांधलेले Roads पुरातन ठेवा म्हणून जपले आहेत ती परभणी...जिथे लोक कर भारत नाहीत म्हणून नगर पालिका काम करत नाही आणि नगर पालिका काम करत नाही म्हणून लोक कर भारत नाहीत ती परभणी...जिथे TALKIES मधे SEAT NO. नसलेली TICKET देऊन BENCH वर बसवतात जिथे A/C चा अर्थ फक्त AIR COOL आहे . तेही PICTURE संपायच्या आधी 1 तास फॅन बंद होतात ती परभणी...जिथे प्रेमाला मुलीचा सोडून सर्व 'कोन 'असतात मुलीची संमती गृहीत धरली जाते व प्रेमिक तिला माहीत नसताना आपसात भांडात असतात.द्वितारफा प्रेम शोधून मिळत नाही. सगळे SELF DECLARED आशिक असतात ती परभणी....' NOCHANGE' IS THE ONLY CONSTANT THING ABOUT PARBHANI...जिथे घरा एवढेच किराणा दुकान आहेत,प्रत्येक जन आपल्याच दुकानातून माल घेतो,दुकानांची संख्या वाढणे हीच इथली प्रगती आहे ती PARBHANI...कविताhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00210732358968428325noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6041784366759394807.post-58066831092513059572007-08-29T08:38:00.000-07:002007-08-29T08:52:38.676-07:00परभानीकर...परभानीकर भारत भर पसरले आहेत.कुठे ही जा परभानीचा माणूस उठून दिसणार आणि काही असो नसो परभणी चा अभिमान मात्र असणार. मित्राणो तुम्ही परभणी वाल्याला कसा ओळखता Keep On Adding Ur Thoughts.भाषा: परभणी ची भाषा परभानीकर चांगला ओळखतो.परभणी ने मराठीला काही नवीन शब्द आहदिमाख खाऊ नको बे,उभे टाकणेमायज़ेपरेशांन होणे शिवाय तोंडात घुटका किंवा गुटखा सोडलेले दात मग Doctor Aso Engineer Aso. तो परभानीकर...जगातला कुठलाही प्रॉब्लेम टापरिवार बसून जो सोडवतो तो परभानीकर...दिवस भर Cricket Match बघून जो पूर्ण संद्ध्याकाळ Analysis Karto तो परभानीकर...First Day First Show ज्याची आवड आहे तो परभानीकर, ही आवड तो जगात कुठेही जोपास्तो...दुसर्याचा प्रॉब्लेम आपला समजून मदत करतो (आपला काम सोडून का होईना )...जो कधी ही लगबगीत नसतो, Office Chya वेळेवर येणआर्याला काम सोडून Entertain करतो....Whatever It Is The Good Thing Aboutbt Parbhanikar Is His माणुसकी... Really This Quality Dificult To Get In Others.Add Ur Thoughts Of Parbhanikar Lets Create Sample Parbhanikar...कविताhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00210732358968428325noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6041784366759394807.post-63723047401081761512007-08-14T01:44:00.000-07:002007-08-14T01:51:48.127-07:00Wi-Max<span style="color:#666666;"><span style="font-size:130%;">Contents</span><br />1 Definitions of terms<br />1.1 802.16d<br />1.2 802.16e<br />1.3 Fixed WiMAX<br />1.4 Mobile WiMAX<br />2 Uses<br />2.1 Broadband access<br />2.1.1 Subscriber units<br />2.2 Mobile applications<br />3 Technical information<br />3.1 MAC layer/data link layer<br />3.2 Physical layer<br />3.3 Comparison with Wi-Fi<br />3.4 Spectrum allocation issues<br />3.4.1 Limitations<br />3.5 Silicon implementations<br />4 Standards<br />4.1 IEEE 802.16e-2005<br />4.2 WiBro<br />5 Associations<br />5.1 WiMAX Forum<br />5.2 WiMAX Spectrum Owners Alliance - WiSOA<br />6 Competing technologies<br />6.1 3G and 4G cellular phone Systems<br />6.1.1 Mobile Broadband Wireless Access<br />6.2 Internet-oriented systems<br />6.3 Comparison<br />7 Future development<br />8 Current deployments</span><br /><span style="color:#666666;"> Definitions of terms</span><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WiMAX&printable=yes#_note-refs"><span style="color:#666666;">[1]</span></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">The terms "fixed WiMAX", "mobile WiMAX", "802.16d" and "802.16e" are frequently used incorrectly. Correct definitions are:<br /></span><a name="802.16d"></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">[</span><a title="Edit section: 802.16d" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WiMAX&action=edit§ion=2"><span style="color:#666666;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">] 802.16d<br />Strictly speaking, 802.16d has never existed as a standard. The standard is correctly called 802.16-2004. However, since this standard is frequently called 802.16d, that usage also takes place in this article to assist readability.<br /></span><a name="802.16e"></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">[</span><a title="Edit section: 802.16e" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WiMAX&action=edit§ion=3"><span style="color:#666666;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">] 802.16e<br />Just as 802.16d has never existed, a standard called 802.16e hasn't either. It's an amendment to 802.16-2004, so is not a standard in its own right. It's properly referred to as 802.16e-2005.<br /></span><a id="Fixed_WiMAX" name="Fixed_WiMAX"></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">[</span><a title="Edit section: Fixed WiMAX" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WiMAX&action=edit§ion=4"><span style="color:#666666;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">] Fixed WiMAX<br />This is a phrase frequently used to refer to systems built using 802.16-2004 ('802.16d') as the air interface technology.<br /></span><a id="Mobile_WiMAX" name="Mobile_WiMAX"></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">[</span><a title="Edit section: Mobile WiMAX" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WiMAX&action=edit§ion=5"><span style="color:#666666;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">] Mobile WiMAX<br />A phrase frequently used to refer to systems built using 802.16e-2005 as the air interface technology. "Mobile WiMAX" implementations are therefore frequently used to deliver pure fixed services.<br /></span><a id="Uses" name="Uses"></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">[</span><a title="Edit section: Uses" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WiMAX&action=edit§ion=6"><span style="color:#666666;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">] Uses<br />The bandwidth and reach of WiMAX make it suitable for the following potential applications:<br />Connecting Wi-Fi </span><a title="Hotspot (Wi-Fi)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotspot_%28Wi-Fi%29"><span style="color:#666666;">hotspots</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> with each other and to other parts of the Internet.<br />Providing a wireless alternative to cable and </span><a title="Digital Subscriber Line" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Subscriber_Line"><span style="color:#666666;">DSL</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> for </span><a title="Last mile" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_mile"><span style="color:#666666;">last mile</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> (last km) broadband access.<br />Providing high-speed data and telecommunications services.<br />Providing a diverse source of Internet connectivity as part of a business continuity plan. That is, if a business has a fixed and a wireless Internet connection, especially from unrelated providers, they are unlikely to be affected by the same service outage.<br />Providing nomadic connectivity.<br /></span><a id="Broadband_access" name="Broadband_access"></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">[</span><a title="Edit section: Broadband access" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WiMAX&action=edit§ion=7"><span style="color:#666666;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">] Broadband access<br />Many companies are closely examining WiMAX for "</span><a title="Last mile" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_mile"><span style="color:#666666;">last mile</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">" connectivity at high data rates. The resulting competition may bring lower pricing for both home and business customers, or bring broadband access to places where it has been economically unavailable. Prior to WiMAX, many operators have been using proprietary fixed wireless technologies for broadband services.<br />WiMAX access was used to assist with communications in Aceh, Indonesia, after the </span><a title="2004 Indian Ocean earthquake" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake"><span style="color:#666666;">tsunami in December 2004</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">. All communication infrastructures, other than </span><a title="Amateur radio" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_radio"><span style="color:#666666;">HAM Radio</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> in the area were destroyed making the survivors unable to communicate with people outside the disaster area and vice versa. WiMAX provided broadband access that helped regenerate communication to and from Aceh.<br /></span><a id="Subscriber_units" name="Subscriber_units"></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">[</span><a title="Edit section: Subscriber units" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WiMAX&action=edit§ion=8"><span style="color:#666666;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">] Subscriber units<br />WiMAX subscriber units are available in both indoor and outdoor versions from several manufacturers. Self-install indoor units are convenient, but radio losses mean that the subscriber must be significantly closer to the WiMAX base station than with professionally installed external units. As such, indoor installed units require a much higher infrastructure investment as well as operational cost (site lease, backhaul, maintenance) due to the high number of base stations required to cover a given area. Indoor units are comparable in size to a cable modem or DSL modem. Outdoor units are roughly the size of a laptop PC, and their installation is comparable to a residential satellite dish.<br />With the advent of mobility ("16e"), there is an increasing focus on portable units. This includes handsets (similar to cellular </span><a title="Smartphone" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartphone"><span style="color:#666666;">smartphones</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">) and PC peripherals (PC Cards or USB dongles). In addition, there is much emphasis from operators on consumer electronics devices (games terminals, MP3 players and the like); it is notable this is more similar to WiFi than 3G cellular technologies.<br /></span><a id="Mobile_applications" name="Mobile_applications"></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">[</span><a title="Edit section: Mobile applications" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WiMAX&action=edit&section=9"><span style="color:#666666;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">] Mobile applications<br />Some cellular companies are evaluating WiMAX as a means of increasing bandwidth for a variety of data-intensive applications; </span><a title="Sprint Nextel" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprint_Nextel"><span style="color:#666666;">Sprint Nextel</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> announced in mid-2006 that it would invest about US$ 3 billion in a WiMAX technology buildout over the next few years</span><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WiMAX&printable=yes#_note-sprint"><span style="color:#666666;">[2]</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">.<br />In line with these possible applications is the technology's ability to serve as a high bandwidth "</span><a title="Backhaul (telecommunications)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backhaul_%28telecommunications%29"><span style="color:#666666;">backhaul</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">" for Internet or cellular phone traffic from remote areas back to an </span><a title="Internet backbone" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_backbone"><span style="color:#666666;">Internet backbone</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">. Although the cost per user/point of WiMAX in a remote application will be higher, it is not limited to such applications, and may be an answer to reducing the cost of </span><a title="Digital Signal 1" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Signal_1"><span style="color:#666666;">T1</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">/</span><a title="E-carrier" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-carrier"><span style="color:#666666;">E1</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> backhaul as well. Given the limited wired infrastructure in some developing countries, the costs to install a WiMAX station in conjunction with an existing cellular tower or even as a solitary hub are likely to be small in comparison to developing a wired solution. Areas of low population density and flat terrain are particularly suited to WiMAX and its range. For countries that have skipped wired infrastructure as a result of prohibitive costs and unsympathetic geography, WiMAX can enhance wireless infrastructure in an inexpensive, decentralized, deployment-friendly and effective manner.<br /></span><a id="Technical_information" name="Technical_information"></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">[</span><a title="Edit section: Technical information" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WiMAX&action=edit§ion=10"><span style="color:#666666;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">] Technical information<br />WiMAX is a term coined to describe standard, interoperable implementations of </span><a title="802.16" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/802.16"><span style="color:#666666;">IEEE 802.16</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> wireless networks, in a rather similar way to </span><a title="Wi-Fi" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi"><span style="color:#666666;">Wi-Fi</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> being interoperable implementations of the </span><a title="IEEE 802.11" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.11"><span style="color:#666666;">IEEE 802.11</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> Wireless LAN standard. However, WiMAX is very different from Wi-Fi in the way it works.<br /></span><a id="MAC_layer.2Fdata_link_layer" name="MAC_layer.2Fdata_link_layer"></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">[</span><a title="Edit section: MAC layer/data link layer" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WiMAX&action=edit§ion=11"><span style="color:#666666;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">] MAC layer/data link layer<br />In Wi-Fi the </span><a title="Media Access Control" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_Access_Control"><span style="color:#666666;">media access controller</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> (MAC) uses </span><a title="Contention" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contention"><span style="color:#666666;">contention</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> access — all subscriber stations that wish to pass data through a </span><a title="Wireless access point" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_access_point"><span style="color:#666666;">wireless access point</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> (AP) are competing for the AP's attention on a random interrupt basis. This can cause subscriber stations distant from the AP to be repeatedly interrupted by closer stations, greatly reducing their throughput. This makes services such as </span><a title="Voice over IP" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_over_IP"><span style="color:#666666;">Voice over IP</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> (VoIP) or </span><a title="IPTV" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPTV"><span style="color:#666666;">IPTV</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">, which depend on an essentially constant </span><a title="Quality of Service" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_of_Service"><span style="color:#666666;">Quality of Service</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> (QoS) depending on data rate and interruptibility, difficult to maintain for more than a few simultaneous users.<br />In contrast, the 802.16 MAC uses a </span><a title="Scheduling algorithm" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheduling_algorithm"><span style="color:#666666;">scheduling algorithm</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> for which the subscriber station need compete once (for initial entry into the network). After that it is allocated an access slot by the base station. The time slot can enlarge and contract, but remains assigned to the subscriber station which means that other subscribers cannot use it. In addition to being stable under overload and over-subscription (unlike 802.11), the 802.16 scheduling algorithm can also be more </span><a title="Bandwidth" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwidth"><span style="color:#666666;">bandwidth</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> efficient. The scheduling algorithm also allows the base station to control QoS parameters by balancing the time-slot assignments among the application needs of the subscriber stations.<br /></span><a id="Physical_layer" name="Physical_layer"></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">[</span><a title="Edit section: Physical layer" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WiMAX&action=edit§ion=12"><span style="color:#666666;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">] Physical layer<br />The original WiMAX standard (IEEE 802.16) specified WiMAX for the 10 to 66 GHz range. 802.16a, updated in 2004 to 802.16-2004, added specifications for the 2 to 11 GHz range. 802.16-2004 was updated to 802.16e in 2005 and uses </span><a title="OFDMA" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OFDMA"><span style="color:#666666;">scalable orthogonal frequency-division multiple access</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> (SOFDMA) as opposed to the </span><a title="OFDM" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OFDM"><span style="color:#666666;">OFDM</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> version with 256 sub-carriers (of which 200 are used) in 802.16d. More advanced versions including 802.16e also bring Multiple Antenna Support through </span><a title="Multiple-input multiple-output communications" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple-input_multiple-output_communications"><span style="color:#666666;">Multiple-input multiple-output communications</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> (MIMO). This brings potential benefits in terms of coverage, self installation, power consumption, frequency re-use and bandwidth efficiency. 802.16e also adds a capability for full mobility support. The WiMAX certification allows vendors with 802.16d products to sell their equipment as WiMAX certified, thus ensuring a level of interoperability with other certified products, as long as they fit the same profile.<br />Most commercial interest is in the 802.16d and .16e standards, since the lower frequencies used in these variants suffer less from inherent signal </span><a title="Attenuation" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attenuation"><span style="color:#666666;">attenuation</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> and therefore give improved range and in-building penetration. Already today, a number of networks throughout the World are in commercial operation using certified WiMAX equipment compliant with the 802.16d standard.<br /></span><a id="Comparison_with_Wi-Fi" name="Comparison_with_Wi-Fi"></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">[</span><a title="Edit section: Comparison with Wi-Fi" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WiMAX&action=edit§ion=13"><span style="color:#666666;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">] Comparison with </span><a title="Wi-Fi" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi"><span style="color:#666666;">Wi-Fi</span></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">Possibly due to the fact both WiMAX and Wi-Fi begin with the same two letters, and are based upon IEEE standards beginning with 802., and both have a connection to wireless connectivity and the Internet, comparisons and confusion between the two are frequent. Despite this, both standards are aimed at different applications.<br />WiMAX is a long range system, covering many kilometers, that uses licensed or unlicensed </span><a title="Electromagnetic spectrum" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum"><span style="color:#666666;">spectrum</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> to deliver a point-to-point connection to the Internet from an ISP to an end user. Different 802.16 standards provide different types of access, from mobile (analogous to access via a cellphone) to fixed (an alternative to wired access, where the end user's wireless termination point is fixed in location.)<br />Wi-Fi is a shorter range system, typically hundreds of meters, that uses unlicensed spectrum to provide access to a network, typically covering only the network operator's own property. Typically Wi-Fi is used by an end user to access their own network, which may or may not be connected to the Internet. If WiMAX provides services analogous to a cellphone, Wi-Fi is more analogous to a cordless phone.<br />WiMAX is highly scalable from what are called 'femto' scale remote stations to multi-sector 'maxi' scale base that handle complex tasks of management and mobile handoff functions and include MIMO-AAS smart antenna subsystems.<br />Due to the ease and low cost with which Wi-Fi can be deployed, it is sometimes used to provide Internet access to third parties within a single room or building available to the provider, sometimes informally, and sometimes as part of a business relationship. For example, many coffee shops, hotels, and transportation hubs contain Wi-Fi access points providing access to the Internet for patrons.<br /></span><a id="Spectrum_allocation_issues" name="Spectrum_allocation_issues"></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">[</span><a title="Edit section: Spectrum allocation issues" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WiMAX&action=edit§ion=14"><span style="color:#666666;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">] Spectrum allocation issues<br />The 802.16 specification applies across a wide swath of the </span><a title="Radio frequency" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_frequency"><span style="color:#666666;">RF</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> spectrum. However, specification is not the same as permission to use. There is no uniform global licensed spectrum for WiMAX. In the US, the biggest segment available is around 2.5 GHz</span><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WiMAX&printable=yes#_note-usspectrum"><span style="color:#666666;">[3]</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">, and is already assigned, primarily to </span><a title="Sprint Nextel" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprint_Nextel"><span style="color:#666666;">Sprint Nextel</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> and </span><a title="Clearwire" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clearwire"><span style="color:#666666;">Clearwire</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">. Elsewhere in the world, the most likely bands used will be around 3.5 GHz, 2.3/2.5 GHz, or 5 GHz, with 2.3/2.5 GHz probably being most important in Asia. Some countries in Asia like </span><a title="India" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"><span style="color:#666666;">India</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">, </span><a title="Vietnam" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam"><span style="color:#666666;">Vietnam</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> and </span><a title="Indonesia" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia"><span style="color:#666666;">Indonesia</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> will use 3.3 GHz.<br />Analogue TV bands may become available for WiMAX use, but await the complete rollout of </span><a title="Digital television" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_television"><span style="color:#666666;">digital TV</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">, and there will be other uses suggested for that spectrum. In the U.S. The </span><a title="Federal Communications Commission" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission"><span style="color:#666666;">FCC</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> </span><a title="Spectrum auction" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrum_auction"><span style="color:#666666;">auction for this spectrum</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> is scheduled for the end of 2007. EU commissioner </span><a title="Viviane Reding" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viviane_Reding"><span style="color:#666666;">Viviane Reding</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> has suggested re-allocation of 500-800 Mhz spectrum for wireless communication, including WiMAX </span><a class="external autonumber" title="http://www.zdnetasia.com/news/communications/0,39044192,62021021,00.htm" href="http://www.zdnetasia.com/news/communications/0,39044192,62021021,00.htm" rel="nofollow"><span style="color:#666666;">[1]</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">.<br />It seems likely that there will be several variants of 802.16, depending on local regulatory conditions and thus on which spectrum is used, even if everything but the underlying radio frequencies is the same. WiMAX equipment will not, therefore, be as portable as it might have been - perhaps even less so than WiFi, whose assigned channels in unlicensed spectrum vary little from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Manufacturers are compelled to provide multi-spectrum devices that can be used across different regions and regulatory requirements. WISOA is an organization that promotes roaming among service providers. However, this is no different than current mobile phones with dual band, triband and even quadband capabilities. Equipment vendors have already announced the development of multiband subscriber units.<br />WiMAX profiles define channel size, TDD/FDD and other necessary attributes in order to have inter-operating products. The current fixed profiles define for both TDD and FDD profiles. At this point, all of the mobile profiles are TDD only. The fixed profiles have channel sizes of 3.5 MHz, 5 MHz, 7 MHz and 10 MHz. The mobile profiles are 5 MHz, 8.75 MHz and 10 MHz. (Note: the 802.16 standard allows far wider variety of channels, but only the above subsets are supported as WiMAX profiles).<br />A major trend in capabilities that mitigates concerns about homogeneous global spectrum is the increasing ability of multi-mode and multi-spectrum wireless ICs and antenna components. This provides a form of De facto deregulation of spectrum as multiple spectra can be aggregated via hardware. This trend has appeared in the cellular and now will advance in the field based on the WiMAX standard for wireless broadband. Keep in mind that this is the 1st broad standard for WWAN systems under which standard multi-mode silicon is being developed.<br />One of the significant advantages of advanced wireless systems such as WiMAX is </span><a title="Spectral efficiency" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_efficiency"><span style="color:#666666;">spectral efficiency</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">. For example, 802.16-2004 (fixed) has a spectral efficiency of 3.7 bit/s/hertz. But all 3.5-4G wireless systems similarly offer spectral efficiencies that are within a few tenths of a percent. The more notable advantage comes from combining SOFDMA with smart antenna technologies. This multiplies the effective spectral efficiency through multiple reuse and smart network deployment topologies. The direct use of frequency domain organization simplifies designs using MIMO-AAS compared to CDMA/WCDMA methods, resulting in more effective systems.<br /></span><a id="Limitations" name="Limitations"></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">[</span><a title="Edit section: Limitations" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WiMAX&action=edit&section=15"><span style="color:#666666;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">] Limitations<br />A commonly held misconception is that WiMAX will deliver 70 </span><a title="Bitrate" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitrate"><span style="color:#666666;">Mbit/s</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">, over 30 miles (48 kilometers). Both of these qualities are true individually, given ideal circumstances, but they are not simultaneously true. WiMAX has some similarities to </span><a title="Digital Subscriber Line" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Subscriber_Line"><span style="color:#666666;">DSL</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> in this respect, where one can either have high </span><a title="Bandwidth" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwidth"><span style="color:#666666;">bandwidth</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> or long reach, but not both simultaneously.<br />The nature of wireless communications dictates that the antenna design will have a substantial impact on what is achievable. Typically, Fixed WiMAX networks have a higher-gain directional antenna installed externally at the customer's premises which results in greatly increased range and throughput. Mobile WiMAX networks comprise mostly of indoor CPEs such as desktop modems, laptops with integrated Mobile WiMAX or other Mobile WiMAX devices. Mobile WiMAX devices typically have an antenna design which is of lower-gain by nature due to their inherent omni-directional (and portable) design. In practice this means that in a line-of-sight environment with a portable Mobile WiMAX CPE, symmetrical speeds of 10 Mbit/s at 10 km could be delivered, but in urban environments it is more likely that these devices will not have line-of-sight and therefore users may only receive 10 Mbit/s over 2 km. Higher-gain directional antennas can be used with a Mobile WiMAX network with range and throughput benefits but the obvious loss of practical mobility.<br />Like most wireless systems, available bandwidth is shared between users in a given radio sector, so performance could deteriorate in the case of many active users on a single sector, especially if proper capacity planning has not been undertaken. In practice, many users will have a range of 2-, 4-, 6-, 8-, 10- or 12 Mbit/s services and additional radio cards will be added to the base station to increase the capacity as required.<br />Because of this, various granular and distributed network architectures are being incorporated into WiMAX through independent development and within the 802.16j, mobile multi-hop relay (MMR) task group. This includes wireless mesh, grids, network remote station repeaters which can extend networks and connect to back-haul.<br /></span><a id="Silicon_implementations" name="Silicon_implementations"></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">[</span><a title="Edit section: Silicon implementations" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WiMAX&action=edit&section=16"><span style="color:#666666;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">] Silicon implementations<br />A critical requirement for the success of a new technology is the availability of low-cost chipsets and silicon implementations.<br /></span><a title="Intel" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"><span style="color:#666666;">Intel</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> is a leader in promoting WiMAX, and has developed its own chipset. However, it is notable that most of the major semiconductor companies have to date been more cautious of involvement and most of the solutions come from specialist smaller or start-up suppliers. For client-side these include Altair, Beceem, GCI, Runcom and a number of others. Both Sequans and Wavesat manufacture solutions for both clients and network while </span><a title="Picochip" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picochip"><span style="color:#666666;">Picochip</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> is focussed on WiMAX chipsets for basestations.<br /></span><a id="Standards" name="Standards"></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">[</span><a title="Edit section: Standards" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WiMAX&action=edit&section=17"><span style="color:#666666;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">] Standards<br />The current WiMAX incarnation, Mobile WiMAX, is based upon IEEE Std 802.16e-2005</span><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WiMAX&printable=yes#_note-tge"><span style="color:#666666;">[4]</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">, approved in December 2005. It is an amendment of IEEE Std 802.16-2004</span><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WiMAX&printable=yes#_note-tgd"><span style="color:#666666;">[5]</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> and so the actual standard is 802.16-2004 as amended by 802.16e-2005 - the specifications need to be read together to understand them.<br />IEEE Std 802.16-2004 addresses only fixed systems. It replaced IEEE Standards 802.16-2001, 802.16c-2002, and 802.16a-2003.<br /></span><a id="IEEE_802.16e-2005" name="IEEE_802.16e-2005"></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">[</span><a title="Edit section: IEEE 802.16e-2005" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WiMAX&action=edit&section=18"><span style="color:#666666;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">] IEEE 802.16e-2005<br />IEEE 802.16e-2005 improves upon IEEE 802.16-2004 by:<br />Scaling of the </span><a title="Fast Fourier Transform" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_Fourier_Transform"><span style="color:#666666;">Fast Fourier Transform</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> (FFT) to the channel bandwidth in order to keep the carrier spacing constant across different channel bandwidths (1.25-20 MHz). Constant carrier spacing results in a higher spectrum efficiency in wide channels, and a cost reduction in narrow channels. Also known as Scalable OFDMA (</span><a class="new" title="SOFDMA" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SOFDMA&action=edit"><span style="color:#666666;">SOFDMA</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">).<br />Improving </span><a title="NLOS" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NLOS"><span style="color:#666666;">NLOS</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> coverage by utilizing advanced </span><a title="Antenna diversity" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenna_diversity"><span style="color:#666666;">antenna diversity</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> schemes, and </span><a title="Hybrid ARQ" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_ARQ"><span style="color:#666666;">hybrid-Automatic Retransmission Request</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> (hARQ)<br />Improving capacity and coverage by introducing </span><a title="Adaptive beamformer" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_beamformer"><span style="color:#666666;">Adaptive Antenna Systems</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> (AAS) and </span><a title="Multiple-input multiple-output" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple-input_multiple-output"><span style="color:#666666;">Multiple Input Multiple Output</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> (MIMO) technology<br />Increasing system gain by use of denser sub-channelization, thereby improving indoor penetration<br />Introducing high-performance coding techniques such as </span><a title="Turbo code" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbo_code"><span style="color:#666666;">Turbo Coding</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> and </span><a title="Low-density parity-check code" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-density_parity-check_code"><span style="color:#666666;">Low-Density Parity Check</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> (LDPC), enhancing security and NLOS performance<br />Introducing downlink sub-channelization, allowing administrators to trade coverage for capacity or vice versa<br />Enhanced Fast Fourier Transform algorithm can tolerate larger delay spreads, increasing resistance to </span><a title="Multipath interference" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multipath_interference"><span style="color:#666666;">multipath interference</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"><br />Adding an extra QoS class (enhanced real-time Polling Service) more appropriate for </span><a title="VoIP" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VoIP"><span style="color:#666666;">VoIP</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> applications.<br />Adding support for mobility (soft and hard handover between base stations). This is seen as one of the most important aspects of 802.16e-2005, and is the very basis of 'Mobile WiMAX'.<br />802.16d vendors point out that fixed WiMAX offers the benefit of available commercial products and implementations optimized for fixed access. It is a popular standard among alternative service providers and operators in developing areas due to its low cost of deployment and advanced performance in a fixed environment. Fixed WiMAX is also seen as a potential standard for backhaul of wireless base stations such as cellular, WiFi or even Mobile WiMAX.<br />SOFDMA (used in 802.16e-2005) and OFDM256 (802.16d) are not compatible so most equipment will have to be replaced if an operator wants or needs to move to the later standard. However, some manufacturers are planning to provide a migration path for older equipment to SOFDMA compatibility which would ease the transition for those networks which have already made the OFDM256 investment. This affects a relatively small number users and operators.<br /></span><a id="WiBro" name="WiBro"></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">[</span><a title="Edit section: WiBro" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WiMAX&action=edit§ion=19"><span style="color:#666666;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">] WiBro<br /></span><a title="South Korea" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Korea"><span style="color:#666666;">South Korea</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">'s electronics and telecommunication industry spearheaded by </span><a title="Samsung Electronics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung_Electronics"><span style="color:#666666;">Samsung Electronics</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> and </span><a class="external text" title="http://www.etri.re.kr/www_05/e_etri/" href="http://www.etri.re.kr/www_05/e_etri/" rel="nofollow"><span style="color:#666666;">ETRI</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> has developed its own standard, </span><a title="WiBro" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WiBro"><span style="color:#666666;">WiBro</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">. In late 2004, </span><a title="Intel" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"><span style="color:#666666;">Intel</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> and </span><a title="LG Electronics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LG_Electronics"><span style="color:#666666;">LG Electronics</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> have agreed on a merger of mobile WiBro(S-OFDMA modulation) and fixed WiMAX(OFDM modulation) to produce a new standard dubbed Mobile WiMax(802.16e-2005) combining features from both to avoid a future standard war. From this point on WiBro became a specific subset implementation of 802.16e-2005 standard over 8.75 Mhz channels in 2.3 Ghz band, whereas Mobile WiMax represents a full implementation of 802.16e-2005 standard that supports flexible channel size and service band. The side effect of this merger is that Mobile WiMax gears are backward compatible with WiBro gears but not with fixed WiMax gears, reflecting its WiBro originated heritage.<br />WiBro has South Korean government support with the requirement for each carrier to spend over US$1 billion for deployments. Korea sought to develop WiBro as a regional and potentially international alternative to 3.5G or 4G cellular systems. But given the lack of momentum as a standard, WiBro has joined WiMAX and agreed to harmonize with the similar OFDMA 802.16e version of the standard.<br />What makes WiBro roll-outs a good "test case" for the overall WiMAX effort is that it is mobile, well thought out for delivery of wireless broadband services, and the fact that the deployment is taking place in a highly sophisticated, broadband-saturated market. WiBro will go up against 3G and very high bandwidth wire-line services rather than as gap-filler or rural under-served market deployments often thought of as "best fit" markets for WiMAX.<br />As such, WiBRO is now best described as a particular profile within WiMAX with 8.75MHz channel in the 2.3GHz band.<br /></span><a id="Associations" name="Associations"></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">[</span><a title="Edit section: Associations" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WiMAX&action=edit§ion=20"><span style="color:#666666;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">] Associations<br /></span><a id="WiMAX_Forum" name="WiMAX_Forum"></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">[</span><a title="Edit section: WiMAX Forum" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WiMAX&action=edit§ion=21"><span style="color:#666666;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">] WiMAX Forum<br /></span><a class="image" title="WiMAX Forum logo" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Wmx_forum_color_logo2.png"></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">The </span><a class="external text" title="http://www.wimaxforum.org/" href="http://www.wimaxforum.org/" rel="nofollow"><span style="color:#666666;">WiMAX Forum</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> is the organization dedicated to certifying the interoperability of WiMAX products. Those that pass conformance and interoperability testing achieve the "WiMAX Forum Certified" designation and can display this mark on their products and marketing materials. Some vendors claim that their equipment is "WiMAX-ready", "WiMAX-compliant", or "pre-WiMAX", if they are not officially WiMAX Forum Certified. </span><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WiMAX&printable=yes#_note-0"><span style="color:#666666;">[6]</span></a><br /><a id="WiMAX_Spectrum_Owners_Alliance_-_WiSOA" name="WiMAX_Spectrum_Owners_Alliance_-_WiSOA"></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">[</span><a title="Edit section: WiMAX Spectrum Owners Alliance - WiSOA" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WiMAX&action=edit&section=22"><span style="color:#666666;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">] WiMAX Spectrum Owners Alliance - WiSOA<br /></span><a class="image" title="WiSOA logo" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:WiSOA_Logo_80px.jpg"></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">WiSOA is the first global organization composed exclusively of owners of WiMAX spectrum without plans to deploy WiMAX technology in those bands. WiSOA is focussed on the regulation, commercialisation, and deployment of WiMAX spectrum in the 2.3–2.5 GHz and the 3.4–3.5 GHz ranges. WiSOA are dedicated to educating and informing its members, industry representatives and government regulators of the importance of WiMAX spectrum, its use, and the potential for WiMAX to revolutionise broadband.</span><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WiMAX&printable=yes#_note-1"><span style="color:#666666;">[7]</span></a><br /><a id="Competing_technologies" name="Competing_technologies"></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">[</span><a title="Edit section: Competing technologies" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WiMAX&action=edit§ion=23"><span style="color:#666666;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">] Competing technologies<br /></span><a class="image" title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Wimax-speed.jpg"></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">Within the marketplace, WiMAX's main competition comes from existing widely deployed wireless systems such as </span><a title="UMTS" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UMTS"><span style="color:#666666;">UMTS</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> and </span><a title="CDMA2000" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CDMA2000"><span style="color:#666666;">CDMA2000</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">, as well as a number of Internet oriented systems such as </span><a title="HIPERMAN" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIPERMAN"><span style="color:#666666;">HIPERMAN</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> and </span><a title="WiBro" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WiBro"><span style="color:#666666;">WiBro</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">. </span><a name="3G_and_4G_cellular_phone_Systems"></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">[</span><a title="Edit section: 3G and 4G cellular phone Systems" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WiMAX&action=edit§ion=24"><span style="color:#666666;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">] 3G and 4G cellular phone Systems<br />Both of the two major </span><a title="3G" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3G"><span style="color:#666666;">3G</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> systems, </span><a title="CDMA2000" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CDMA2000"><span style="color:#666666;">CDMA2000</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> and </span><a title="UMTS" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UMTS"><span style="color:#666666;">UMTS</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">, compete with WiMAX. Both aim to offer DSL-class Internet access in addition to phone service. UMTS has also been enhanced to compete directly with WiMAX in the form of </span><a title="UMTS-TDD" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UMTS-TDD"><span style="color:#666666;">UMTS-TDD</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">, which can use WiMAX oriented spectrum and provides a more consistent, if lower bandwidth at peak, user experience than WiMAX.<br />3G cellular phone systems usually benefit from already having entrenched infrastructure, being upgraded from earlier systems. Users can usually fall back to older systems when they move out of range of upgraded equipment, often relatively seamlessly.<br />The major cellular standards are being evolved to so-called </span><a title="4G" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4G"><span style="color:#666666;">4G</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">, high bandwidth, low latency, all-IP networks with voice services built on top. With GSM/UMTS, the move to 4G is the </span><a title="3GPP Long Term Evolution" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3GPP_Long_Term_Evolution"><span style="color:#666666;">3GPP Long Term Evolution</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> effort. For </span><a title="AMPS" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMPS"><span style="color:#666666;">AMPS</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">/</span><a title="TIA" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TIA"><span style="color:#666666;">TIA</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> derived standards such as CDMA2000, a replacement called </span><a title="Ultra Mobile Broadband" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra_Mobile_Broadband"><span style="color:#666666;">Ultra Mobile Broadband</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> is under development. In both cases, existing air interfaces are being discarded, in favour of OFDMA for the downlink and a variety of OFDM based solutions for the uplink, much akin to WiMAX.<br />In some areas of the world the wide availability of UMTS and a general desire for standardization has meant spectrum has not been allocated for WiMAX: in July 2005, the </span><a title="European Union" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union"><span style="color:#666666;">EU</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">-wide frequency allocation for WiMAX was blocked.<br /></span><a id="Mobile_Broadband_Wireless_Access" name="Mobile_Broadband_Wireless_Access"></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">[</span><a title="Edit section: Mobile Broadband Wireless Access" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WiMAX&action=edit§ion=25"><span style="color:#666666;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">] Mobile Broadband Wireless Access<br />Mobile Broadband Wireless Access (MBWA) is a technology being developed by </span><a title="IEEE 802.20" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.20"><span style="color:#666666;">IEEE 802.20</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> and is aimed at wireless mobile broadband for operations from 120 to 350 km/h. The 802.20 standard has taken on many of the methods behind Mobile WiMAX, including high speed dynamic modulation and similar scalable OFDMA capabilities. It apparently retains fast hand-off, Forward Error Correction (FEC) and cell edge enhancements.<br />The Working Group was temporarily suspended in mid 2006 by the IEE-SA Standards Board since it had been the subject of a number of appeals, and a preliminary investigation of one of these "revealed a lack of transparency, possible 'dominance,' and other irregularities in the Working Group" </span><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WiMAX&printable=yes#_note-ieee802"><span style="color:#666666;">[8]</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">.<br />In September 2006 the IEE-SA Standards Board approved a plan to enable the working group to continue under new conditions, and the standard is now expected to be finalized by Q2 2008.<br /></span><a id="Internet-oriented_systems" name="Internet-oriented_systems"></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">[</span><a title="Edit section: Internet-oriented systems" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WiMAX&action=edit&section=26"><span style="color:#666666;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">] Internet-oriented systems<br />Early WirelessMAN standards, the European standard </span><a title="HIPERMAN" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIPERMAN"><span style="color:#666666;">HIPERMAN</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> and Korean standard </span><a title="WiBro" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WiBro"><span style="color:#666666;">WiBro</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> have been harmonized as part of WiMAX and are no longer seen as competition but as complementary. All networks now being deployed in South Korea, the home of the Wibro standard, are now WiMAX.<br />As a short-range mobile Internet solution, such as in cafes and at transportation hubs like airports, the popular </span><a title="WiFi" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WiFi"><span style="color:#666666;">WiFi</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> 802.11b/g system is widely deployed, and provides enough coverage for some users to feel subscription to a WiMAX service is unnecessary.<br />The following table should be treated with caution as it only shows peak rates which are potentially very misleading.<br /></span><a id="Comparison" name="Comparison"></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">[</span><a title="Edit section: Comparison" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WiMAX&action=edit&section=27"><span style="color:#666666;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">] Comparison<br />Main article: </span><a title="Comparison of wireless data standards" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_wireless_data_standards"><span style="color:#666666;">Comparison of wireless data standards</span></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;"> </span><a title="Template:Comparison of mobile Internet standards" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Comparison_of_mobile_Internet_standards"><span style="color:#666666;">v</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> • </span><a title="Template talk:Comparison of mobile Internet standards" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Comparison_of_mobile_Internet_standards"><span style="color:#666666;">d</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> • </span><a class="external text" title="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=" action="edit" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Comparison_of_mobile_Internet_standards&action=edit" rel="nofollow"><span style="color:#666666;">e</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"><br />Comparison of Mobile Internet Access methods<br />Standard<br />Family<br />Primary Use<br />Radio Tech<br />Downlink (Mbps)<br />Uplink (Mbps)<br />Notes<br /></span><a title="802.16e" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/802.16e"><span style="color:#666666;">802.16e</span></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">WiMAX<br />Mobile Internet<br />MIMO-SOFDMA<br />70<br />70<br />Quoted speeds only achievable at very short ranges, more practically 10 Mbps at 10 km.<br /></span><a title="HIPERMAN" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIPERMAN"><span style="color:#666666;">HIPERMAN</span></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">HIPERMAN<br />Mobile Internet<br /></span><a title="OFDM" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OFDM"><span style="color:#666666;">OFDM</span></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">56.9<br />56.9<br /></span><a title="WiBro" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WiBro"><span style="color:#666666;">WiBro</span></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">WiBro<br />Mobile Internet<br /></span><a title="OFDMA" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OFDMA"><span style="color:#666666;">OFDMA</span></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">50<br />50<br />Mobile range (900 m)<br /></span><a title="IBurst" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBurst"><span style="color:#666666;">iBurst</span></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">iBurst 802.20<br />Mobile Internet<br /></span><a title="HC-SDMA" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HC-SDMA"><span style="color:#666666;">HC-SDMA</span></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">64<br />64<br />3-12 km<br /></span><a title="UMTS" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UMTS"><span style="color:#666666;">UMTS</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> W-CDMA</span><a title="HSDPA" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HSDPA"><span style="color:#666666;">HSDPA</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">+</span><a title="HSUPA" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HSUPA"><span style="color:#666666;">HSUPA</span></a><br /><a title="UMTS" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UMTS"><span style="color:#666666;">UMTS/3GSM</span></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">Mobile phone<br /></span><a title="Code Division Multiple Access" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_Division_Multiple_Access"><span style="color:#666666;">CDMA</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">/</span><a title="Frequency division duplex" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_division_duplex"><span style="color:#666666;">FDD</span></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">.38414.4<br />.3845.76<br /></span><a title="List of HSDPA networks" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_HSDPA_networks"><span style="color:#666666;">HSDPA widely deployed</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">. Typical downlink rates today 1-2Mbps, ~200kbps uplink; future downlink up to </span><a title="HSDPA" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HSDPA#Roadmap"><span style="color:#666666;">28.8Mbps</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">.<br /></span><a title="UMTS-TDD" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UMTS-TDD"><span style="color:#666666;">UMTS-TDD</span></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">UMTS/3GSM<br />Mobile Internet<br /></span><a title="Code Division Multiple Access" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_Division_Multiple_Access"><span style="color:#666666;">CDMA</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">/</span><a title="Time division duplex" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_division_duplex"><span style="color:#666666;">TDD</span></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">16<br />16<br />Reported speeds according to </span><a class="external text" title="http://www.ipwireless.com/technology/" href="http://www.ipwireless.com/technology/" rel="nofollow"><span style="color:#666666;">IPWireless</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> using 16QAM modulation similar to </span><a title="HSDPA" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HSDPA"><span style="color:#666666;">HSDPA</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">+</span><a title="HSUPA" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HSUPA"><span style="color:#666666;">HSUPA</span></a><br /><a title="3GPP Long Term Evolution" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3GPP_Long_Term_Evolution"><span style="color:#666666;">LTE UMTS</span></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">UMTS/4GSM<br />General 4G<br /></span><a title="OFDMA" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OFDMA"><span style="color:#666666;">OFDMA</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">/</span><a title="MIMO" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIMO"><span style="color:#666666;">MIMO</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">/</span><a title="SC-FDMA" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SC-FDMA"><span style="color:#666666;">SC-FDMA</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> (</span><a title="HSOPA" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HSOPA"><span style="color:#666666;">HSOPA</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">)<br />>100<br />>50<br />Still in development<br /></span><a title="1xRTT" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1xRTT"><span style="color:#666666;">1xRTT</span></a><br /><a title="CDMA2000" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CDMA2000"><span style="color:#666666;">CDMA2000</span></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">Mobile phone<br /></span><a title="Code Division Multiple Access" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_Division_Multiple_Access"><span style="color:#666666;">CDMA</span></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">0.144<br />0.144<br />Obsoleted by EV-DO<br /></span><a title="EV-DO" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EV-DO"><span style="color:#666666;">EV-DO</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> 1x Rev. 0EV-DO 1x Rev.AEV-DO Rev.B<br />CDMA2000<br />Mobile Internet<br /></span><a title="Code Division Multiple Access" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_Division_Multiple_Access"><span style="color:#666666;">CDMA</span></a><span style="color:#666666;">/</span><a title="Frequency division duplex" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_division_duplex"><span style="color:#666666;">FDD</span></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;">2.453.14.9xN<br />0.151.81.8xN<br />Rev B note: N is the number of 1.25 MHz chunks of spectrum used. Not yet deployed.<br />Notes: All speeds are theoretical maximums and will vary by a number of factors, including the use of external antennae, distance from the tower and the ground speed (i.e. communications on a train may be poorer than when standing still.) Usually the bandwidth is shared between several terminals. The performance of each technology is determined by a number of constraints, including the </span><a title="Spectral efficiency" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_efficiency"><span style="color:#666666;">spectral efficiency</span></a><span style="color:#666666;"> of the technology, the cell sizes used, and the amount of spectrum available. For more information, see Comparison of wireless data standards.<br /></span><a id="Future_development" name="Future_development"></a><br /><span style="color:#666666;"> Future development<br />Mobile WiMAX based upon 802.16e-2005 has been accepted as IP-OFDMA for inclusion as the sixth wireless link system under IMT-2000. This can hasten acceptance by regulatory authorities and operators for use in cellular spectrum. WiMAX II, 802.16m will be proposed for IMT-Advanced 4G.<br />The goal for the long term evolution of both WiMAX and LTE is to achieve 100 Mbit/s mobile and 1 Gbit/s fixed-nomadic bandwidth as set by ITU for 4G NGMN (Next Generation Mobile Network) systems through the adaptive use of MIMO-AAS and smart, granular network topologies. 3GPP LTE and WiMAX-m are concentrating much effort on MIMO-AAS, mobile multi-hop relay networking and related developments needed to deliver 10X and higher Co-Channel reuse multiples.<br />Since the evolution of core air-link technologies has approached the practical limits imposed by Shannon's Theorem, the evolution of wireless has embarked on pursuit of the 3X to 10X+ greater bandwidth and network efficiency gains that are expected by advances in the spatial and smart wireless broadband networking technologies. What will clearly define 4G more than either WCDMA or OFDMA wireless link methods will be wireless networks that more effectively adapt to and take advantage of available spectrum.<br /></span><br /><span style="color:#666666;"> Current deployments<br />Main article: List of Deployed WiMAX networks(Country by Country List)<br />The WiMAX Forum now lists over 350 WiMAX trials and deployments. Current and planned deployments and the bands in which they operate and the standards they use are listed in the above article.</span>कविताhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00210732358968428325noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6041784366759394807.post-29654299768303444622007-08-13T04:53:00.000-07:002007-08-13T05:11:00.784-07:00Wi-Fi<span style="color:#999999;"><span style="font-size:180%;">Wi-Fi</span> is a wireless technology brand owned by the </span><a title="Wi-Fi Alliance" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi_Alliance"><span style="color:#999999;">Wi-Fi Alliance</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> intended to improve the interoperability of </span><a title="Wireless" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless"><span style="color:#999999;">wireless</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> </span><a title="Local area network" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_area_network"><span style="color:#999999;">local area network</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> products based on the </span><a title="IEEE 802.11" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.11"><span style="color:#999999;">IEEE 802.11</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> standards.<br />Common applications for Wi-Fi include Interne and VoIP phone access, </span><a title="Video game" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game"><span style="color:#999999;">gaming</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">, and network connectivity for </span><a title="Consumer electronics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_electronics"><span style="color:#999999;">consumer electronics</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> such as </span><a title="Televisions" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Televisions"><span style="color:#999999;">televisions</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">, </span><a title="DVD player" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVD_player"><span style="color:#999999;">DVD players</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">, and </span><a title="Digital camera" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_camera"><span style="color:#999999;">digital cameras</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">.<br />Contents[</span><a class="internal" id="togglelink" href="javascript:toggleToc()"><span style="color:#999999;">hide</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">]<br /></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi#Definition"><span style="color:#999999;">1 Definition</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"><br /></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi#Uses"><span style="color:#999999;">2 Uses</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"><br /></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi#Advantages_of_Wi-Fi"><span style="color:#999999;">3 Advantages of Wi-Fi</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"><br /></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi#Disadvantages_of_Wi-Fi"><span style="color:#999999;">4 Disadvantages of Wi-Fi</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"><br /></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi#Standard_Devices"><span style="color:#999999;">5 Standard Devices</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"><br /></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi#Non-Standard_Devices"><span style="color:#999999;">6 Non-Standard Devices</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"><br /></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi#Embedded_systems"><span style="color:#999999;">6.1 Embedded systems</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"><br /></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi#Unintended_and_intended_use_by_outsiders"><span style="color:#999999;">7 Unintended and intended use by outsiders</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"><br /></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi#Wi-Fi_vs._amateur_radio"><span style="color:#999999;">8 Wi-Fi vs. amateur radio</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"><br /></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi#Media_reports_of_health_risks"><span style="color:#999999;">9 Media reports of health risks</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"><br /></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi#History"><span style="color:#999999;">10 History</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"><br /></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi#Origin_and_meaning_of_the_term_.22Wi-Fi.22"><span style="color:#999999;">11 Origin and meaning of the term "Wi-Fi"</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> </span><span style="color:#999999;"><br />//<br /></span><a id="Definition" name="Definition"></a><br /><span style="color:#999999;">[</span><a title="Edit section: Definition" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wi-Fi&action=edit&section=1"><span style="color:#999999;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">] Definition<br />Main article: </span><a title="Wi-Fi Technical Information" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi_Technical_Information"><span style="color:#999999;">Wi-Fi Technical Information</span></a><br /><span style="color:#999999;">According to the </span><a class="external text" title="http://wi-fi.org/files/WFA_Brand_StyleGuide_May2007.pdf" href="http://wi-fi.org/files/WFA_Brand_StyleGuide_May2007.pdf" rel="nofollow"><span style="color:#999999;">brand style guide</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> of the Wi-Fi Alliance (the owner of the Wi-Fi brand):<br />"Products which successfully pass the Wi-Fi Alliance testing may use the Wi-Fi CERTIFIED brand. The Alliance tests and certifies the interoperability of wireless LAN products based on the </span><a title="IEEE 802.11" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.11"><span style="color:#999999;">IEEE 802.11</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> standards. Studies show that 88% of consumers prefer products which have been tested by an independent organization."<br />Wi-Fi technologies have gone through several generations since their inception in 1997. Wi-Fi is supported to different extents under </span><a title="Microsoft Windows" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"><span style="color:#999999;">Microsoft Windows</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">, </span><a title="Apple Inc." href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Inc."><span style="color:#999999;">Apple</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> </span><a title="Mac OS" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac_OS"><span style="color:#999999;">Mac OS</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> and </span><a title="Open source" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source"><span style="color:#999999;">open source</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> </span><a title="Unix" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix"><span style="color:#999999;">Unix</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> and </span><a title="Linux" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"><span style="color:#999999;">Linux</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> </span><a title="Operating system" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"><span style="color:#999999;">operating systems</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">. Contrary to popular belief, Wi-Fi is not an abbreviation for "Wireless Fidelity" (see "Origin and meaning of the term "Wi-Fi"" below).<br /></span><a id="Uses" name="Uses"></a><br /><span style="color:#999999;">[</span><a title="Edit section: Uses" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wi-Fi&action=edit&section=2"><span style="color:#999999;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">] Uses<br />A Wi-Fi enabled device such as a PC, </span><a title="Cell phone" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_phone"><span style="color:#999999;">cell phone</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> or </span><a title="Personal digital assistant" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_digital_assistant"><span style="color:#999999;">PDA</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> can connect to the </span><a title="Internet" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"><span style="color:#999999;">Internet</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> when within range of a </span><a title="Wireless network" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_network"><span style="color:#999999;">wireless network</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> connected to the Internet. The area covered by one or several interconnected access points is called a </span><a title="Hotspot (Wi-Fi)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotspot_%28Wi-Fi%29"><span style="color:#999999;">hotspot</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">. Hotspots can cover as little as a single room with wireless-opaque walls or as much as many square miles covered by overlapping access points. Wi-Fi can also be used to create a </span><a title="Wireless mesh network" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_mesh_network"><span style="color:#999999;">mesh network</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">. Both architectures are used in </span><a title="Wireless community network" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_community_network"><span style="color:#999999;">community networks</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">.[</span><a title="Wikipedia:Citing sources" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"><span style="color:#999999;">citation needed</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">]<br />Wi-Fi also allows connectivity in </span><a title="Peer-to-peer" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer-to-peer"><span style="color:#999999;">peer-to-peer</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> (</span><a title="Wireless ad-hoc network" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_ad-hoc_network"><span style="color:#999999;">wireless ad-hoc network</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">) mode, which enables devices to connect directly with each other. This connectivity mode is useful in consumer electronics and gaming applications.<br />When the technology was first commercialized there were many problems because consumers could not be sure that products from different vendors would work together. The Wi-Fi Alliance began as a community to solve this issue so as to address the needs of the end user and allow the technology to mature. The Alliance created the branding Wi-Fi CERTIFIED to show consumers that products are </span><a title="Interoperable" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interoperable"><span style="color:#999999;">interoperable</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> with other products displaying the same branding.<br />Many consumer devices use Wi-Fi. Amongst others, </span><a title="Personal computer" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer"><span style="color:#999999;">personal computers</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> can network to each other and connect to the </span><a title="Internet" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"><span style="color:#999999;">Internet</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">, mobile computers can connect to the Internet from any Wi-Fi hotspot, and </span><a title="Digital camera" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_camera"><span style="color:#999999;">digital cameras</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> can transfer images wirelessly.<br /></span><a title="Router" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Router"><span style="color:#999999;">Routers</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> which incorporate a </span><a title="DSL" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DSL"><span style="color:#999999;">DSL</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> or cable modem and a Wi-Fi access point are often used in homes and other premises, and provide </span><a title="Internet" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"><span style="color:#999999;">Internet</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> access and internetworking to all devices connected wirelessly or by cable into them. Devices supporting Wi-Fi can also be connected in </span><a class="new" title="Ad-hoc mode" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ad-hoc_mode&action=edit"><span style="color:#999999;">ad-hoc mode</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> for client-to-client connections without a router.<br />Business and industrial Wi-Fi is widespread as of 2007. In business environments, increasing the number of Wi-Fi access points provides redundancy, support for fast roaming and increased overall network capacity by using more channels or creating smaller cells. Wi-Fi enables wireless voice applications (VoWLAN or WVOIP). Over the years, Wi-Fi implementations have moved toward 'thin' access points, with more of the network intelligence housed in a centralized network appliance, relegating individual Access Points to be simply 'dumb' radios. Outdoor applications may utilize true </span><a title="Mesh network" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesh_network"><span style="color:#999999;">mesh</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> topologies. As of 2007 Wi-Fi installations can provide a secure </span><a title="Gateway (computer networking)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gateway_%28computer_networking%29"><span style="color:#999999;">computer networking gateway</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">, </span><a title="Firewall" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firewall"><span style="color:#999999;">firewall</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">, </span><a title="DHCP" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DHCP"><span style="color:#999999;">DHCP</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> server, </span><a title="Intrusion detection system" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrusion_detection_system"><span style="color:#999999;">intrusion detection system</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">, and other functions.<br />In addition to restricted use in homes and offices, Wi-Fi is publicly available at </span><a title="Hotspot (Wi-Fi)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotspot_%28Wi-Fi%29"><span style="color:#999999;">Wi-Fi hotspots</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> provided either free of charge or to subscribers to various providers. Free hotspots are often provided by businesses such as hotels, restaurants, and airports who offer the service to attract or assist clients. Sometimes free Wi-Fi is provided by enthusiasts, or by organisations or authorities who wish to promote business in their area. Metropolitan-wide WiFi (</span><a title="Mu-Fi" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mu-Fi"><span style="color:#999999;">Mu-Fi</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">) already has more than 300 projects in process.</span><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi#_note-0"><span style="color:#999999;">[1]</span></a><br /><a id="Advantages_of_Wi-Fi" name="Advantages_of_Wi-Fi"></a><br /><span style="color:#999999;">[</span><a title="Edit section: Advantages of Wi-Fi" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wi-Fi&action=edit§ion=3"><span style="color:#999999;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">] Advantages of Wi-Fi<br />Wi-Fi allows LANs to be deployed without cabling for client devices, typically reducing the costs of network deployment and expansion. Spaces where cables cannot be run, such as outdoor areas and historical buildings, can host wireless LANs.<br />As of 2007 wireless network adapters are built into most modern laptops. The price of </span><a title="Chipset" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chipset"><span style="color:#999999;">chipsets</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> for Wi-Fi continues to drop, making it an economical networking option included in ever more devices. Wi-Fi has become widespread in corporate infrastructures, which also helps with the deployment of </span><a title="RFID" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RFID"><span style="color:#999999;">RFID</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> technology that can piggyback on Wi-Fi </span><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi#_note-1"><span style="color:#999999;">[2]</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">.<br />Different competitive brands of access points and client network interfaces are inter-operable at a basic level of service. Products designated as "Wi-Fi Certified" by the Wi-Fi Alliance are backwards inter-operable. Wi-Fi is a global set of standards. Unlike </span><a title="Mobile telephone" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_telephone"><span style="color:#999999;">mobile telephones</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">, any standard Wi-Fi device will work anywhere in the world.<br />Wi-Fi is widely available in more than 250,000 public hotspots and tens of millions of homes and corporate and university campuses worldwide. </span><a title="Wi-Fi Protected Access" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi_Protected_Access"><span style="color:#999999;">WPA</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> is not easily cracked if strong passwords are used and </span><a title="WPA2" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WPA2"><span style="color:#999999;">WPA2</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> encryption has no known weaknesses. New protocols for Quality of Service (</span><a title="Wireless Multimedia Extensions" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_Multimedia_Extensions"><span style="color:#999999;">WMM</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">) make Wi-Fi more suitable for latency-sensitive applications (such as voice and video), and power saving mechanisms (WMM Power Save) improve battery operation.<br /></span><a id="Disadvantages_of_Wi-Fi" name="Disadvantages_of_Wi-Fi"></a><br /><span style="color:#999999;">[</span><a title="Edit section: Disadvantages of Wi-Fi" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wi-Fi&action=edit§ion=4"><span style="color:#999999;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">] Disadvantages of Wi-Fi<br />Spectrum assignments and operational limitations are not consistent worldwide. Most of Europe allows for an additional 2 channels beyond those permitted in the US (1-13 vs 1-11); Japan has one more on top of that (1-14), and some countries, like Spain, prohibit use of the lower-numbered channels. Europe, as of 2007, is now essentially homogeneous in this respect. Some countries, such as Italy, formerly required a 'general authorization' for any Wi-Fi used outside an operator's own premises, or require something akin to an operator registration.[</span><a title="Wikipedia:Citing sources" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"><span style="color:#999999;">citation needed</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">] </span><a title="Equivalent isotropically radiated power" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalent_isotropically_radiated_power"><span style="color:#999999;">Equivalent isotropically radiated power</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> (EIRP) in the EU is limited to 20 </span><a title="DBm" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DBm"><span style="color:#999999;">dBm</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> (0.1 W).<br />Power consumption is fairly high compared to some other low-bandwidth standards, such as </span><a title="Zigbee" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zigbee"><span style="color:#999999;">Zigbee</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> and </span><a title="Bluetooth" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluetooth"><span style="color:#999999;">Bluetooth</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">, making battery life a concern.<br />The most common wireless encryption standard, </span><a title="Wired Equivalent Privacy" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wired_Equivalent_Privacy"><span style="color:#999999;">Wired Equivalent Privacy</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> or WEP, has been shown to be easily breakable even when correctly configured. </span><a title="Wi-Fi Protected Access" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi_Protected_Access"><span style="color:#999999;">Wi-Fi Protected Access</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> (WPA and WPA2), which began shipping in 2003, aims to solve this problem and is now available on most products. Wi-Fi </span><a title="Access Point" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Access_Point"><span style="color:#999999;">Access Points</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> typically default to an open (</span><a title="Encryption" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encryption"><span style="color:#999999;">encryption</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">-free) mode. Novice users benefit from a zero-configuration device that works out of the box, but without security enabled, providing open wireless access to their LAN. To turn security on requires the user to configure the device, usually via a software </span><a title="Graphical user interface" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphical_user_interface"><span style="color:#999999;">graphical user interface</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> (GUI). Wi-Fi networks that are open (unencrypted) can be monitored and used to read and copy data (including personal information) transmitted over the network, unless another security method is used to secure the data, such as a VPN or a secure web page. (</span><a title="HTTPS" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS"><span style="color:#999999;">HTTPS</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">/</span><a title="SSL" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSL"><span style="color:#999999;">Secure Socket Layer</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">)<br />Many 2.4 GHz </span><a title="IEEE 802.11" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.11#802.11b"><span style="color:#999999;">802.11b</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> and </span><a title="IEEE 802.11" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.11#802.11g"><span style="color:#999999;">802.11g</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> Access points default to the same channel on initial startup, contributing to congestion on certain channels. To change the channel of operation for an access point requires the user to configure the device.<br />Wi-Fi networks have limited range. A typical Wi-Fi home router using </span><a title="IEEE 802.11" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.11#802.11b"><span style="color:#999999;">802.11b</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> or </span><a title="IEEE 802.11" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.11#802.11g"><span style="color:#999999;">802.11g</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> with a stock antenna might have a range of 45 m (150 ft) indoors and 90 m (300 ft) outdoors. Range also varies with frequency band. Wi-Fi in the 2.4 GHz frequency block has slightly better range than Wi-Fi in the 5 GHz frequency block. Outdoor range with improved (directional) antennas can be several kilometres or more with line-of-sight.<br />Wi-Fi pollution, or an excessive number of access points in the area, especially on the same or neighboring channel, can prevent access and interfere with the use of other access points by others, caused by overlapping channels in the 802.11g/b spectrum, as well as with decreased </span><a title="Signal-to-noise ratio" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal-to-noise_ratio"><span style="color:#999999;">signal-to-noise ratio</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> (SNR) between access points. This can be a problem in high-density areas, such as large apartment complexes or office buildings with many Wi-Fi access points. Additionally, other devices use the 2.4 GHz band: microwave ovens, cordless phones, baby monitors, security cameras, and Bluetooth devices can cause significant additional interference.<br />It is also an issue when municipalities</span><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi#_note-2"><span style="color:#999999;">[3]</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">, or other large entities such as universities, seek to provide large area coverage. Everyone is considered equal for the base standard without 802.11e/WMM when they use the band. This openness is also important to the success and widespread use of 2.4 GHz Wi-Fi, but makes it unsuitable for "must-have" public service functions or where reliability is required.<br />Interoperability issues between brands or proprietary deviations from the standard can disrupt connections or lower throughput speeds on other user's devices that are within range. Additionally, Wi-Fi devices do not, as of 2007, pick channels to avoid interference.[</span><a title="Wikipedia:Citing sources" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"><span style="color:#999999;">citation needed</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">]<br /></span><a id="Standard_Devices" name="Standard_Devices"></a><br /><span style="color:#999999;">[</span><a title="Edit section: Standard Devices" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wi-Fi&action=edit&section=5"><span style="color:#999999;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">] Standard Devices<br /></span><a title="Wireless access point" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_access_point"><span style="color:#999999;">Wireless access points</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> connects a group of wireless devices to an adjacent wired </span><a title="LAN" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LAN"><span style="color:#999999;">LAN</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">. An access point is similar to an </span><a title="Ethernet hub" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet_hub"><span style="color:#999999;">ethernet hub</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">, relaying data between connected wireless devices in addition to a (usually) single connected wired device, most often an ethernet hub or switch, allowing wireless devices to communicate with other wired devices.<br /></span><a class="new" title="Wireless adapter" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wireless_adapter&action=edit"><span style="color:#999999;">Wireless adapters</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> allow devices to connect to a wireless network. These adapters connect to devices using various external or internal interconnects such as </span><a title="Peripheral Component Interconnect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_Component_Interconnect"><span style="color:#999999;">PCI</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">, </span><a title="MiniPCI" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MiniPCI"><span style="color:#999999;">miniPCI</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">, </span><a title="USB" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB"><span style="color:#999999;">USB</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">, </span><a title="ExpressCard" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ExpressCard"><span style="color:#999999;">ExpressCard</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">, Cardbus and </span><a title="PC card" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_card"><span style="color:#999999;">PC card</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">. Most newer laptop computers are equipped with internal adapters. Internal cards are generally more difficult to install.<br />Wireless </span><a title="Router" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Router"><span style="color:#999999;">routers</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> integrate WAP, ethernet </span><a title="Network switch" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_switch"><span style="color:#999999;">switch</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">, and internal </span><a title="Router" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Router"><span style="color:#999999;">Router</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> firmware application that provides </span><a title="Internet Protocol" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Protocol"><span style="color:#999999;">IP</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> </span><a title="Routing" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routing"><span style="color:#999999;">Routing</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">, </span><a title="NAT" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NAT"><span style="color:#999999;">NAT</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">, and </span><a title="DNS" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNS"><span style="color:#999999;">DNS</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> forwarding through an integrated </span><a title="WAN" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WAN"><span style="color:#999999;">WAN</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> interface. A wireless router allows wired and wireless ethernet LAN devices to connect to a (usually) single </span><a title="Wide Area Network" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wide_Area_Network"><span style="color:#999999;">WAN</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> device such as </span><a title="Cable modem" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable_modem"><span style="color:#999999;">cable modem</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> or </span><a title="DSL modem" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DSL_modem"><span style="color:#999999;">DSL modem</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">. A wireless router allows all three devices (mainly the access point and router) to be configured through one central utility. This utility is most usually an integrated </span><a title="Web server" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_server"><span style="color:#999999;">web server</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> which serves web pages to wired and wireless LAN clients and often optionally to WAN clients. This utility may also be an application that is run on a desktop computer such as Apple's </span><a title="AirPort" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AirPort"><span style="color:#999999;">AirPort</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">.<br />Wireless </span><a title="Ethernet bridge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet_bridge"><span style="color:#999999;">Ethernet bridges</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> connect a wired network to a wireless network. This is different from an access point in the sense that an access point connects wireless devices to a wired network at the </span><a title="OSI model" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSI_model#Layer_2:_Data_Link_Layer"><span style="color:#999999;">data-link layer</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">. Two wireless bridges may be used to connect two wired networks over a wireless link, useful in situations where a wired connection may be unavailable, such as between two separate homes.<br />Wireless range extenders or </span><a class="new" title="Wireless repeater" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wireless_repeater&action=edit"><span style="color:#999999;">wireless repeaters</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> can extend the range of an existing wireless network. Range extenders can be strategically placed to elongate a signal area or allow for the signal area to reach around barriers such as those created in L-shaped corridors. Wireless devices connected through repeaters will suffer from an increased latency for each hop. Additionally, a wireless device at the end of chain of wireless repeaters will have a throughput that is limited by the weakest link within the repeater chain.<br />Most commercial devices (routers, access points, bridges, repeaters) designed for home or business environments use either </span><a title="RP-SMA" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RP-SMA"><span style="color:#999999;">RP-SMA</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> or </span><a title="RP-TNC" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RP-TNC"><span style="color:#999999;">RP-TNC</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> antenna connectors. PCI wireless adapters also mainly use </span><a title="RP-SMA" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RP-SMA"><span style="color:#999999;">RP-SMA</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> connectors. Most </span><a title="PC card" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_card"><span style="color:#999999;">PC card</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> and </span><a title="USB" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB"><span style="color:#999999;">USB</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> wireless only have internal antennas etched on their </span><a title="Printed circuit board" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_board"><span style="color:#999999;">printed circuit board</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> while some have </span><a title="MMCX connector" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MMCX_connector"><span style="color:#999999;">MMCX connector</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> or </span><a class="new" title="MC-Card" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MC-Card&action=edit"><span style="color:#999999;">MC-Card</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> external connections in addition to an internal antenna. A few </span><a title="USB" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB"><span style="color:#999999;">USB</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> cards have a </span><a title="RP-SMA" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RP-SMA"><span style="color:#999999;">RP-SMA</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> connector. Most </span><a title="Mini PCI" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mini_PCI"><span style="color:#999999;">Mini PCI</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> wireless cards utilize </span><a title="Hirose U.FL" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirose_U.FL"><span style="color:#999999;">Hirose U.FL</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> connectors, but cards found in various wireless appliances contain all of the connectors listed. Many high-gain (and homebuilt antennas) utilize the </span><a title="Type N connector" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_N_connector"><span style="color:#999999;">Type N connector</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> more commonly used by other radio communications methods.<br /></span><a id="Non-Standard_Devices" name="Non-Standard_Devices"></a><br /><span style="color:#999999;">[</span><a title="Edit section: Non-Standard Devices" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wi-Fi&action=edit§ion=6"><span style="color:#999999;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">] Non-Standard Devices<br />USB-Wi-Fi adapters, food container "</span><a title="Cantenna" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantenna"><span style="color:#999999;">Cantennas</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">", parabolic reflectors, and many other types of self-built antennae are increasingly made by do-it-yourselfers. For minimal budgets, as low as a few dollars, signal strength and range </span><a class="external text" title="http://www.usbwifi.orcon.net.nz/" href="http://www.usbwifi.orcon.net.nz/" rel="nofollow"><span style="color:#999999;">can be improved dramatically</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">.<br />As of 2007, </span><a title="Long Range Wi-Fi" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Range_Wi-Fi"><span style="color:#999999;">Long Range Wi-Fi</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> kits have begun to enter the market. Companies like </span><a class="new" title="BroadbandXpress" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BroadbandXpress&action=edit"><span style="color:#999999;">BroadbandXpress</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> offer long range, inexpensive kits that can be setup with limited knowledge. These kits utilize specialized antennas which increase the range of Wi-Fi dramatically, up to the world record 137.2 miles (220 km). These kits are commonly used to get broadband internet to a place without direct broadband access.</span><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi#_note-3"><span style="color:#999999;">[4]</span></a><br /><span style="color:#999999;">The longest link ever achieved was by the Swedish space agency. They attained 310 km, but used 6 watt amplifiers to reach an overhead stratospheric balloon. [</span><a title="Wikipedia:Citing sources" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"><span style="color:#999999;">citation needed</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">] The longest link without amplification was 279 km in Venezuela, 2006. </span><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi#_note-4"><span style="color:#999999;">[5]</span></a><br /><a id="Embedded_systems" name="Embedded_systems"></a><br /><span style="color:#999999;"> <em>Embedded systems</em><br />Wi-Fi availability in the home is on the increase. This extension of the Internet into the home space will increasingly be used for remote monitoring. Examples of remote monitoring include security systems and tele-medicine. In all these kinds of implementation, if the Wi-Fi provision is provided using a system running one of operating systems mentioned above, then it becomes unfeasible due to weight, power consumption and cost issues.<br />Increasingly in the last few years (particularly as of early 2007), embedded Wi-Fi modules have become available which come with a real-time operating system and provide a simple means of wireless enabling any device which has and communicates via a serial port.<br />This allows simple monitoring devices -- for example, a portable ECG monitor hooked up to a patient in their home -- to be created. This Wi-Fi enabled device effectively becomes part of the internet cloud and can communicate with any other node on the internet. The data collected can hop via the home's Wi-Fi access point to anywhere on the internet.<br />These Wi-Fi modules are designed so that minimal Wi-Fi knowledge is required by designers to wireless enable their product.<br /></span><a id="Unintended_and_intended_use_by_outsiders" name="Unintended_and_intended_use_by_outsiders"></a><br /><span style="color:#999999;">[</span><a title="Edit section: Unintended and intended use by outsiders" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wi-Fi&action=edit&section=8"><span style="color:#999999;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">] Unintended and intended use by outsiders<br /></span><a class="image" title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Wikinews-logo.svg"></a><br /><a title="Wikinews" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikinews"><span style="color:#999999;">Wikinews</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> has related news:<br /></span><a class="extiw" title="wikinews:Florida_man_charged_with_stealing_WiFi" href="http://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Florida_man_charged_with_stealing_WiFi"><span style="color:#999999;">Florida man charged with stealing WiFi</span></a><br /><span style="color:#999999;">Measures to deter unauthorized users include suppressing the AP's </span><a title="Service set identifier" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_set_identifier"><span style="color:#999999;">service set identifier</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> (SSID) broadcast, allowing only computers with known </span><a title="MAC address" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MAC_address"><span style="color:#999999;">MAC addresses</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> to join the network, and various </span><a title="Encryption" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encryption"><span style="color:#999999;">encryption</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> standards. Access points and computers using no encryption are vulnerable to eavesdropping by an attacker armed with </span><a title="Packet sniffer" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packet_sniffer"><span style="color:#999999;">packet sniffer</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> software. If the eavesdropper has the ability to change his MAC address then he can potentially join the network by </span><a title="Spoofing attack" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spoofing_attack"><span style="color:#999999;">spoofing</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> an authorised address.<br /></span><a title="Wired Equivalent Privacy" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wired_Equivalent_Privacy"><span style="color:#999999;">WEP</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> encryption can protect against casual snooping but may also produce a misguided sense of security since freely available tools such as </span><a title="AirSnort" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AirSnort"><span style="color:#999999;">AirSnort</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> can quickly recover WEP encryption keys. Once it has seen 5-10 million encrypted packets, AirSnort will determine the encryption password in under a second.</span><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi#_note-5"><span style="color:#999999;">[6]</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> The newer </span><a title="Wi-Fi Protected Access" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi_Protected_Access"><span style="color:#999999;">Wi-Fi Protected Access</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> (WPA) and </span><a title="IEEE 802.11i" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.11i"><span style="color:#999999;">IEEE 802.11i</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> (WPA2) encyption standards do not have the serious weaknesses of WEP encryption, but require strong </span><a title="Passphrase" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passphrase"><span style="color:#999999;">passphrases</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> for full security.<br />Recreational exploration of other people's access points has become known as </span><a title="Wardriving" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wardriving"><span style="color:#999999;">wardriving</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">, and the leaving of </span><a title="Graffiti" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graffiti"><span style="color:#999999;">graffiti</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> describing available services as </span><a title="Warchalking" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warchalking"><span style="color:#999999;">warchalking</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">. These activities may be illegal in certain jurisdictions, but existing legislation and case-law is often unclear.<br />However, it is also common for people to unintentionally use others' Wi-Fi networks without explicit authorization. Operating systems such as </span><a title="Windows XP SP2" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_XP_SP2"><span style="color:#999999;">Windows XP SP2</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> and </span><a title="Mac OS X" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac_OS_X"><span style="color:#999999;">Mac OS X</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> automatically connect to an available wireless network, depending on the network configuration. A user who happens to start up a laptop in the vicinity of an access point may find the computer has joined the network without any visible indication. Moreover, a user intending to join one network may instead end up on another one if the latter's signal is stronger. In combination with automatic discovery of other network resources (see </span><a title="Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_Host_Configuration_Protocol"><span style="color:#999999;">DHCP</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> and </span><a title="Zeroconf" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeroconf"><span style="color:#999999;">Zeroconf</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">) this could possibly lead wireless users to send sensitive data to the wrong destination. [</span><a title="Wikipedia:Citing sources" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"><span style="color:#999999;">citation needed</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">]<br />In </span><a title="Singapore" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore"><span style="color:#999999;">Singapore</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">, using another person's Wi-Fi network is </span><a title="Laws of Singapore" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laws_of_Singapore"><span style="color:#999999;">illegal</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> under the Computer Misuse Act. A 17 year old has been arrested for simply tapping into his neighbor's wireless Internet connection and faces up to 3 years' imprisonment and a fine.</span><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi#_note-6"><span style="color:#999999;">[7]</span></a><br /><a id="Wi-Fi_vs._amateur_radio" name="Wi-Fi_vs._amateur_radio"></a><br /><span style="color:#999999;">[</span><a title="Edit section: Wi-Fi vs. amateur radio" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wi-Fi&action=edit&section=9"><span style="color:#999999;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">] Wi-Fi vs. amateur radio<br />In the US, Canada and Australia, a portion of the 2.4 GHz Wi-Fi radio spectrum is also allocated to </span><a title="Amateur radio" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_radio"><span style="color:#999999;">amateur radio</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> users. In the US, FCC Part 15 rules govern non-licensed operators (i.e. most Wi-Fi equipment users). Under Part 15 rules, non-licensed users must "accept" (i.e. endure) interference from licensed users and not cause harmful interference to licensed users. Amateur radio operators are licensed users, and retain what the FCC terms "primary status" on the band, under a distinct set of rules (Part 97). Under Part 97, licensed amateur operators may construct their own equipment, use very high-gain antennas, and boost output power to 100 watts on frequencies covered by Wi-Fi channels 2-6. However, Part 97 rules mandate using only the minimum power necessary for communications, forbid obscuring the data, and require station identification every 10 minutes. Therefore, output power control is required to meet regulations, and the transmission of any encrypted data (for example https) is questionable.<br />In practice, microwave power amplifiers are expensive. On the other hand, the short </span><a title="Wavelength" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelength"><span style="color:#999999;">wavelength</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> at 2.4 GHz allows for simple construction of very high gain directional antennas. Although Part 15 rules forbid any modification of commercially constructed systems, amateur radio operators may modify commercial systems for optimized construction of long links, for example. Using only 200 mW link radios and high gain directional antennas, a very narrow beam may be used to construct reliable links with minimal radio frequency interference to other users.<br /></span><a id="Media_reports_of_health_risks" name="Media_reports_of_health_risks"></a><br /><span style="color:#999999;">[</span><a title="Edit section: Media reports of health risks" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wi-Fi&action=edit&section=10"><span style="color:#999999;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">] Media reports of health risks<br />The </span><a title="United Kingdom" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"><span style="color:#999999;">UK's</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> </span><a title="Health Protection Agency" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_Protection_Agency"><span style="color:#999999;">Health Protection Agency</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> considers there is no consistent evidence of harm from the low power transmissions of Wi-Fi equipment, nevertheless their chairman, </span><a title="William Stewart (scientist)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Stewart_%28scientist%29"><span style="color:#999999;">Sir William Stewart</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">, stated that it is a sensible precaution to keep the situation under review.</span><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi#_note-hpa"><span style="color:#999999;">[8]</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> Two media items (the latest in an episode of the current affairs television program </span><a title="Panorama (TV series)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panorama_%28TV_series%29"><span style="color:#999999;">Panorama</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> in May 2007) reported that schools and families have been removing their Wi-Fi systems as a result.</span><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi#_note-independent"><span style="color:#999999;">[9]</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> Individual anecdotes of deleterious effects which ceased upon removal of the systems have also been reported including </span><a title="Headache" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Headache"><span style="color:#999999;">headaches</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> and </span><a title="Lethargy" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lethargy"><span style="color:#999999;">lethargy</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">.</span><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi#_note-independent"><span style="color:#999999;">[9]</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">. Consensus amongst scientists is that there is no evidence of harm, and the continuing calls for more research into the effects on human health remain limited. Thirty-seven studies have already been conducted that do not show a causal relationship.</span><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi#_note-independent"><span style="color:#999999;">[9]</span></a><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi#_note-bbc"><span style="color:#999999;">[10]</span></a><br /><a id="History" name="History"></a><br /><span style="color:#999999;">[</span><a title="Edit section: History" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wi-Fi&action=edit&section=11"><span style="color:#999999;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">] History<br />Wi-Fi uses both single carrier </span><a title="Direct-sequence spread spectrum" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct-sequence_spread_spectrum"><span style="color:#999999;">direct-sequence spread spectrum</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> radio technology (part of the larger family of </span><a title="Spread spectrum" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spread_spectrum"><span style="color:#999999;">spread spectrum</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> systems) and multi-carrier </span><a title="OFDM" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OFDM"><span style="color:#999999;">OFDM</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) radio technology. These regulations then enabled the development of Wi-Fi, its onetime competitor </span><a title="HomeRF" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HomeRF"><span style="color:#999999;">HomeRF</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">, and </span><a title="Bluetooth" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluetooth"><span style="color:#999999;">Bluetooth</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">.<br />Unlicensed spread spectrum was first made available by the </span><a title="Federal Communications Commission" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission"><span style="color:#999999;">Federal Communications Commission</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> in 1985 and these FCC regulations were later copied with some changes in many other countries enabling use of this technology in all major countries.</span><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi#_note-7"><span style="color:#999999;">[11]</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> The FCC action was proposed by Michael Marcus of the FCC staff in 1980 and the subsequent controversial regulatory action took 5 more years. It was part of a broader proposal to allow civil use of spread spectrum technology and was opposed at the time by main stream equipment manufacturers and many radio system operators.<br />The precursor to Wi-Fi was invented in 1991 by </span><a title="NCR Corporation" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NCR_Corporation"><span style="color:#999999;">NCR Corporation</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">/</span><a title="AT&T" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AT%26T"><span style="color:#999999;">AT&T</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> (later </span><a title="Lucent" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucent"><span style="color:#999999;">Lucent</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> & </span><a title="Agere Systems" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agere_Systems"><span style="color:#999999;">Agere Systems</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">) in </span><a title="Nieuwegein" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nieuwegein"><span style="color:#999999;">Nieuwegein</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">, the Netherlands. It was initially intended for cashier systems; the first wireless products were brought on the market under the name </span><a title="WaveLAN" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WaveLAN"><span style="color:#999999;">WaveLAN</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> with speeds of 1 Mbit/s to 2 Mbit/s. </span><a class="new" title="Vic Hayes" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vic_Hayes&action=edit"><span style="color:#999999;">Vic Hayes</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">, who held the chair of IEEE 802.11 for 10 years and has been named the 'father of Wi-Fi,' was involved in designing standards such as </span><a title="IEEE" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE"><span style="color:#999999;">IEEE</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> 802.11b, 802.11a and 802.11g.<br /></span><a id="Origin_and_meaning_of_the_term_.22Wi-Fi.22" name="Origin_and_meaning_of_the_term_.22Wi-Fi.22"></a><br /><span style="color:#999999;">[</span><a title="'Edit" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wi-Fi&action=edit&section=12"><span style="color:#999999;">edit</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">] Origin and meaning of the term "Wi-Fi"<br />Despite the similarity between the terms "Wi-Fi" and "</span><a title="Hi-Fi" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hi-Fi"><span style="color:#999999;">Hi-Fi</span></a><span style="color:#999999;">", statements reportedly made by Phil Belanger of the </span><a title="Wi-Fi Alliance" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi_Alliance"><span style="color:#999999;">Wi-Fi Alliance</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> contradict the popular conclusion that "Wi-Fi" stands for "Wireless Fidelity".</span><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi#_note-8"><span style="color:#999999;">[12]</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> According to Mr Belanger, the </span><a title="Interbrand" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interbrand"><span style="color:#999999;">Interbrand</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> Corporation developed the brand "Wi-Fi" for the Wi-Fi Alliance to use to describe WLAN products that are based on the IEEE 802.11 standards. In Mr Belanger's words, "Wi-Fi and the </span><a title="Yin yang" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yin_yang"><span style="color:#999999;">yin yang</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> style logo were invented by Interbrand. We [the founding members of the Wireless Ethernet Compatibility Alliance, now called the Wi-Fi Alliance] hired Interbrand to come up with the name and logo that we could use for our interoperability seal and marketing efforts. We needed something that was a little catchier than 'IEEE 802.11b Direct Sequence'."<br />थे wi-फि अलायंस themselves इन्वोकेद थे टर्म "वायरलेस फिदेलिटी" विथ थे मार्केटिंग ऑफ़ अ टैग लीन, "थे स्टैंडर्ड फ़ॉर वायरलेस फिदेलिटी", बुत लेटर रेमोवेद थे टैग फ्रॉम थेइर मार्केटिंग. थे wi-फि अलायंस नोव सीम्स तो दिस्कौरागे थे प्रोपगेशन ऑफ़ थे नोतिओं ठाट "wi-फि" स्तान्ड्स फ़ॉर "वायरलेस फिदेलिटी", बुत इत हस बीन रेफेर्रेड तो अस सुच ब्य थे wi-फि अलायंस इन व्हिते पपेर्स कर्रेंत्ल्य हेल्ड इन थेइर क्नोव्लेद्गे बसें: "... अ प्रोमिसिंग मार्केट फ़ॉर वायरलेस फिदेलिटी (wi-फि) नेत्वोर्क एक़ुइप्मेन्त्." </span><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi#_note-9"><span style="color:#999999;">[13]</span></a><span style="color:#999999;"> and "A Short History of WLANs... The association created the Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) logo to indicate that a product had been certified for interoperability." </span>कविताhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00210732358968428325noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6041784366759394807.post-33417006884309542222007-08-09T03:59:00.000-07:002007-08-09T05:16:46.473-07:00<div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh_877AmkZh2L4pW4mYntmoTpa1cN3QjZsz_xnJEaV40jsKca-6e1GNwNg0u6SsJuTdvYu10FQ4JCB2M7t9S2ijKMXP8jY13ZuQIFrUbPA0G6nQLGFn4XWs5j0Olvm055hOtQjga_gJ-767/s1600-h/autowp.ru_mahindra_logo_1"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5096662928906349698" style="FLOAT: left; MARGIN: 0px 10px 10px 0px; CURSOR: hand" height="210" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh_877AmkZh2L4pW4mYntmoTpa1cN3QjZsz_xnJEaV40jsKca-6e1GNwNg0u6SsJuTdvYu10FQ4JCB2M7t9S2ijKMXP8jY13ZuQIFrUbPA0G6nQLGFn4XWs5j0Olvm055hOtQjga_gJ-767/s400/autowp.ru_mahindra_logo_1" width="348" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><div><br /><br />Mahindra & Mahindra Limited<br /><a class="image" title="Image:Mahindra logo.gif" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Mahindra_logo.gif"></a><br /><a title="Category:Types of companies" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Types_of_companies">Type</a>Public<br />Founded1945<br />Headquarters<br /><a class="image" title="Flag of India" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Flag_of_India.svg"></a><br />people<br />Keshub Mahindra (Chairman), Anand G.Mahindra (Vice-Chairman & Managing Director)<br />Industry<br />Automotive and Tractor<br />Products<br />utility vehiclescommercial vehiclestractor<br />Revenue<br />$4.5 Bn (2007)<br />Employees<br />11,600<br />Website<br /><a href="http://www.mahindra.com/">http://www.mahindra.com/</a></div><br /><div></div><br /><div><strong><em><span style="font-size:130%;color:#ff6666;">HISTORY</span></em></strong></div><br /><div><span style="font-size:130%;"><span style="font-family:times new roman;color:#666666;"><em>Mahindra & Mahindra Limited (M&M) is a major </em></span><a title="Automaker" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automaker"><span style="font-family:times new roman;color:#666666;"><em>automaker</em></span></a><span style="font-family:times new roman;color:#666666;"><em> in </em></span><a title="India" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"><span style="font-family:times new roman;color:#666666;"><em>India</em></span></a><span style="font-family:times new roman;color:#666666;"><em>. It is the flagship company of the Mahindra Group. The company was set up in 1945 as Mahindra & Mohammed.</em></span><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahindra_and_Mahindra_Limited#_note-2"><span style="font-family:times new roman;color:#666666;"><em>[3]</em></span></a><span style="font-family:times new roman;color:#666666;"><em> It traded steel with suppliers in England and the United States. M&M began by assembling </em></span><span style="font-family:times new roman;color:#666666;"><em>complete knock down</em></span></span><span style="font-size:130%;"><span style="font-family:times new roman;color:#666666;"><em>(CKD) </em></span><a title="Jeep" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeep"><span style="font-family:times new roman;color:#666666;"><em>Jeeps</em></span></a><span style="font-family:times new roman;color:#666666;"><em> in 1949.</em></span><span style="font-family:times new roman;color:#666666;"><em> It expanded to indigenous manufacture of Jeep vehicles with a high level of local content under license from </em></span><a title="Kaiser Jeep" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaiser_Jeep"><span style="font-family:times new roman;color:#666666;"><em>Kaiser Jeep</em></span></a><span style="font-family:times new roman;color:#666666;"><em> and later </em></span><a title="American Motors" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Motors"><span style="font-family:times new roman;color:#666666;"><em>American Motors</em></span></a><span style="font-family:times new roman;color:#666666;"><em> (AMC).<br />M&M soon branched out into manufacturing </em></span><span style="font-family:times new roman;color:#666666;"><em>agricultural tractors</em></span><span style="font-family:times new roman;color:#666666;"><em>and light commercial vehicles (LCVs). It later expanded its operations to secure a significant presence in many more important sectors. The company has now transformed itself into a group that caters to the Indian and overseas markets with a presence in vehicles, farm equipment, information technology, trade and finance related services, as well as infrastructure development.<br />By 2005, M&M had become the largest producer of </em></span><a title="SUV" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SUV"><span style="font-family:times new roman;color:#666666;"><em>SUVs</em></span></a><span style="font-family:times new roman;color:#666666;"><em> in India. The company has recently started a separate sector, the Mahindra Systems and Automotive Technologies (MSAT), to focus on developing components and offering engineering services</em></span></span></div><br /><div><span style="color:#666666;"></span></div><br /><div><span style="color:#666666;"><span style="font-size:130%;"><strong><em>Overview <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj_CRBhoepK5u6ABCaGTY1ilu7kSWPI02aAB_yoLXFDNuvxIphVgtt2aWv7UO5hYWwa2JP2E0tdapXTSCnW0LW4toG_uTydVzCnHeihsBsWFuB1QhR84VPlr8jVPywqewVK6_OGyY0BS-54/s1600-h/Jeep_FC-160_CowlAndChassis.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5096668404989652114" style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN: 0px 0px 10px 10px; CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj_CRBhoepK5u6ABCaGTY1ilu7kSWPI02aAB_yoLXFDNuvxIphVgtt2aWv7UO5hYWwa2JP2E0tdapXTSCnW0LW4toG_uTydVzCnHeihsBsWFuB1QhR84VPlr8jVPywqewVK6_OGyY0BS-54/s400/Jeep_FC-160_CowlAndChassis.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /></em></strong></span>The Mahindra Group is a US $4.5 billion* conglomerate and has a leadership position in the Indian automotive sector. Mahindra & Mahindra Ltd. is the flagship company of the Group. M&M comprises of the Automotive Sector, the Farm Equipment Sector and the Systems & Technologies Sector. It is a leading manufacturer of multi-utility vehicles and tractors. Mahindra & Mahindra completed 60 years of business excellence in 2005. Set up in 1945 to make general-purpose utility vehicles for the Indian market, M&M first became known as the maker of the iconic Jeep in India. Mahindra & Mahindra rapidly grew from being a maker of army vehicles to a major automobile and tractor manufacturer with a growing global appetite. M&M initiated a process of product enhancement and globalization. It made strategic acquisitions of plants in China and the United Kingdom, and has three assembly plants in the USA. M&M has partnerships with international companies like Renault SA, France, Nissan and International Truck and Engine Corporation, USA. M&M made its entry into the passenger car segment with Logan in April 2007 under the Mahindra Renault JV. M&M will make its maiden entry into the heavy trucks segment with Mahindra International, the joint venture with International Truck, USA. M&M’s Automotive Sector makes a wide rage of vehicles including MUVs, LCVs and three wheelers. M&M is the largest manufacturer of MUVs, offering over 20 models including new generation multi-utility vehicles like the Scorpio and the Bolero. The company is a market leader in the Utility Vehicle segment. M&M's products are being exported to the USA, Russia and several other countries in Africa, Asia, Europe and Latin America. Its global subsidiaries include Mahindra Europe Srl. based in Italy, Mahindra USA Inc., Mahindra South Africa and Mahindra (China) Tractor Co. Ltd. Mahindra Farm Equipment Sector has come to be recognised as a powerful symbol of productivity and performance. M&M is the fourth largest tractor company in the world. It is also the largest manufacturer of tractors in India with sustained market leadership of around 24 years. It designs, develops, manufactures and markets tractors as well as farm implements. The Sector has also found significant success in the international market. Mahindra (China) Tractor Co. Ltd. manufactures tractors for the growing Chinese market and is a hub for tractor exports to the USA and other western nations. M&M has a 100% subsidiary, Mahindra USA, where it assembles products for the American market. FES received the coveted Deming Application Prize for manufacturing in 2003, for establishing Total Quality Management in all operations. M&M Ltd. is the only tractor company in the world to have achieved this honor. Formed in 2004, by M&M, Systech Sector is a response to the increasingly competitive automotive components industry. Providing an extensive range of services from design to delivery, Systech intends to create the worlds most valuable and innovative auto components business by partnering with global customers to satisfy their business needs. Towards this goal, M&M has acquired three international companies in the forging space -- Stokes Forgings in the UK, Jeco Holding AG and Schöneweiss GmbH in Germany. Through these acquisitions and by finding value wherever it may be, Mahindra has created the fifth largest forging company in the world and one that it feels will become the best as well. Over the years, M&M has transformed itself into a company that has a leadership position in all the sectors it operates in and has a growing global footprint.</span></div><br /><div><span style="color:#666666;"></span></div><br /><div><span style="color:#666666;"><strong><em><span style="font-size:130%;color:#ff0000;"><span style="color:#996633;">Models</span><br /></span></em></strong>Mahindra Bolero<br />Mahindra Bolero Camper<br />Mahindra Scorpio<br />Mahindra-Renault Logan (in cooperation with Renault</span></div></div>कविताhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00210732358968428325noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6041784366759394807.post-58284168794714078372007-08-04T03:40:00.000-07:002007-08-04T04:37:00.519-07:00<div><br /></div><br /><div><br /><br /><br /><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg2UrcMt7sinRbEbaOlHHwNw9IPG0T69GHxFUlZzCrS0zHsK6Q2Ly8fHLseS0f3FaQxz0KN-nfd1EcrueOPaCz5MJp-Ok-Xae72tIgvvIiLSmhDXc_t6SZLiBVvor1tFdwBEfLnTd_HinVg/s1600-h/britannia_logo.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5094794296010042418" style="FLOAT: left; MARGIN: 0px 10px 10px 0px; WIDTH: 248px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 151px" height="168" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg2UrcMt7sinRbEbaOlHHwNw9IPG0T69GHxFUlZzCrS0zHsK6Q2Ly8fHLseS0f3FaQxz0KN-nfd1EcrueOPaCz5MJp-Ok-Xae72tIgvvIiLSmhDXc_t6SZLiBVvor1tFdwBEfLnTd_HinVg/s400/britannia_logo.jpg" width="263" border="0" /></a> <span style="font-size:130%;color:#ff6666;"><strong><em>HISTORY</em></strong></span><br /><br /><br /><br /><div><strong>T</strong>he story of one of India's favourite brands reads almost like a fairy tale. Once upon a time, in 1892 to be precise, a biscuit company was started in a nondescript house in Calcutta (now Kolkata) with an initial investment of Rs. 295. The company we all know as Britannia today.</div><br /><br /><br /><div></div><br /><br /><br /><div><strong>T</strong>he beginnings might have been humble-the dreams were anything but. By 1910, with the advent of electricity, Britannia mechanised its operations, and in 1921, it became the first company east of the Suez Canal to use imported gas ovens. Britannia's business was flourishing. But, more importantly, Britannia was acquiring a reputation for quality and value. As a result, during the tragic World War II, the Government reposed its trust in Britannia by contracting it to supply large quantities of "service biscuits" to the armed forces.</div><br /><br /><br /><div><strong>A</strong>s time moved on, the biscuit market continued to grow… and Britannia grew along with it. In 1975, the Britannia Biscuit Company took over the distribution of biscuits from Parry's who till now distributed Britannia biscuits in India. In the subsequent public issue of 1978, Indian shareholding crossed 60%, firmly establishing the Indianness of the firm. The following year, Britannia Biscuit Company was re-christened Britannia Industries Limited (BIL). Four years later in 1983, it crossed the Rs. 100 crores revenue mark. </div><br /><br /><br /><div><strong>O</strong>n the operations front, the company was making equally dynamic strides. In 1992, it celebrated its Platinum Jubilee. In 1997, the company unveiled its new corporate identity - "Eat Healthy, Think Better" - and made its first foray into the dairy products market. In 1999, the "Britannia Khao, World Cup Jao" promotion further fortified the affinity consumers had with 'Brand Britannia'.</div><br /><br /><br /><div></div><br /><br /><br /><div><strong><em>B</em></strong>ritannia strode into the 21st Century as one of India's biggest brands and the pre-eminent food brand of the country. It was equally recognised for its innovative approach to products and marketing: the Lagaan Match was voted India's most successful promotional activity of the year 2001 while the delicious Britannia 50-50 Maska-Chaska became India's most successful product launch. In 2002, Britannia's New Business Division formed a joint venture with Fonterra, the world's second largest Dairy Company, and Britannia New Zealand Foods Pvt. Ltd. was born. In recognition of its vision and accelerating graph, Forbes Global rated Britannia 'One amongst the Top 200 Small Companies of the World', and The Economic Times pegged Britannia India's 2nd Most Trusted Brand. </div><br /><br /><br /><div></div><br /><br /><br /><div><strong><em>T</em></strong>oday, more than a century after those tentative first steps, Britannia's fairy tale is not only going strong but blazing new standards, and that miniscule initial investment has grown by leaps and bounds to crores of rupees in wealth for Britannia's shareholders. The company's offerings are spread across the spectrum with products ranging from the healthy and economical Tiger biscuits to the more lifestyle-oriented Milkman Cheese. Having succeeded in garnering the trust of almost one-third of India's one billion population and a strong management at the helm means Britannia will continue to dream big on its path of innovation and quality. And millions of consumers will savour the results, happily ever after. </div><br /><br /><br /><div></div><br /><br /><br /><div><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5094796705486695490" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; WIDTH: 523px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 262px; TEXT-ALIGN: center" height="256" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhcY46xn3j8m6uu5hT2EQcoSiKEyxVssVcwnfy5I41fL_JT3fNDHC-lrAkaHNh-NOyg-a7ixiYa7Y4hfK34yKN7ngt5RnBNcViC9oWmaOl8WfIkbYSqPsmi2cukC4Yjp2OcThxchlB4umE-/s400/management_team3.jpg" width="477" border="0" /></div></div></div><br /><div><br /></div><br /><div></div><br /><ul><br /><li><strong><span style="color:#ff6666;"><br /><blockquote><strong><span style="color:#ff6666;"><br /><blockquote><strong><span style="font-family:arial;color:#ff6666;"><em><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj27EILDLU7_tumxIlt_BEAxKHC4gerh6iUIGSXM8wj78OlCkVfU_jSfWzD0fepQ83iFGDEEkiTZK4l7w5sTXtyWmYBl0NmxuP6L18Scljc7eFV6SfLcqEuTd5R5CLfIcrQkA6ynVaW4Xdx/s1600-h/milestone.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5094798024041655378" style="FLOAT: left; MARGIN: 0px 10px 10px 0px; WIDTH: 104px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 50px" height="24" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj27EILDLU7_tumxIlt_BEAxKHC4gerh6iUIGSXM8wj78OlCkVfU_jSfWzD0fepQ83iFGDEEkiTZK4l7w5sTXtyWmYBl0NmxuP6L18Scljc7eFV6SfLcqEuTd5R5CLfIcrQkA6ynVaW4Xdx/s400/milestone.gif" width="104" border="0" /></a>MILESTONE</em></span></strong></blockquote></span></strong></blockquote></span></strong></li></ul><br /><div><strong><span style="color:#ff6666;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj27EILDLU7_tumxIlt_BEAxKHC4gerh6iUIGSXM8wj78OlCkVfU_jSfWzD0fepQ83iFGDEEkiTZK4l7w5sTXtyWmYBl0NmxuP6L18Scljc7eFV6SfLcqEuTd5R5CLfIcrQkA6ynVaW4Xdx/s1600-h/milestone.gif"></a></span></strong></div><br /><p><br />1892<br />The Genesis - Britannia established with an investment of Rs. 295 in Kolkata<br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj27EILDLU7_tumxIlt_BEAxKHC4gerh6iUIGSXM8wj78OlCkVfU_jSfWzD0fepQ83iFGDEEkiTZK4l7w5sTXtyWmYBl0NmxuP6L18Scljc7eFV6SfLcqEuTd5R5CLfIcrQkA6ynVaW4Xdx/s1600-h/milestone.gif"></a><br />Advent of electricity sees operations mechanised<br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj27EILDLU7_tumxIlt_BEAxKHC4gerh6iUIGSXM8wj78OlCkVfU_jSfWzD0fepQ83iFGDEEkiTZK4l7w5sTXtyWmYBl0NmxuP6L18Scljc7eFV6SfLcqEuTd5R5CLfIcrQkA6ynVaW4Xdx/s1600-h/milestone.gif"></a>1921<br />Imported machinery introduced; Britannia becomes the first company East of the Suez to use gas ovens<br />1939 - 44<br />Sales rise exponentially to Rs.16,27,202 in 1939 Becomes bulk supplier of 'Service Biscuits' to the armed forces during World War II --><br />During 1944 sales ramp up by more than eight times to reach Rs.1.36 crore<br />1975<br />Britannia Biscuit Company takes over biscuit distribution from Parry's<br />1978<br />Public issue - Indian shareholding crosses 60%<br />1979<br />Re-christened Britannia Industries Ltd. (BIL)<br />1983<br />Sales cross Rs.100 crore<br />1989<br />The Executive Office relocated to Bangalore<br />1992<br />BIL celebrates its Platinum Jubilee<br />1993<br />Wadia Group acquires stake in ABIL, UK and becomes an equal partner with Groupe Danone in BIL<br />1994<br />Volumes cross 1,00,000 tons of biscuits<br />1997<br />Re-birth - new corporate identity 'Eat Healthy, Think Better' leads to new mission: 'Make every third Indian a Britannia consumer'<br />BIL enters the dairy products market<br />1999<br />"Britannia Khao World Cup Jao" - a major success! Profit up by 37% 2000<br />Forbes Global Ranking - Britannia among Top 300 small companies<br />2001<br />BIL ranked one of India's biggest brands<br />No.1 food brand of the country<br />Britannia Lagaan Match: India's most successful promotional activity of the year<br />Maska Chaska: India's most successful FMCG launch<br />2002<br />BIL launches joint venture with Fonterra, the world's second largest dairy company<br />Britannia New Zealand Foods Pvt. Ltd. is born<br />Rated as 'One amongst the Top 200 Small Companies of the World' by Forbes Global<br />Economic Times ranks BIL India's 2nd Most Trusted Brand<br />Pure Magic -Winner of the Worldstar, Asiastar and Indiastar award for packaging<br />2003<br />'Treat Duet'- most successful launch of the year<br />Britannia Khao World Cup Jao rocks the consumer lives yet again<br />2004<br />Britannia accorded the status of being a 'Superbrand'<br />Volumes cross 3,00,000 tons of biscuits<br />Good Day adds a new variant - Choconut - in its range<br />2005 </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p><span style="font-family:times new roman;font-size:130%;color:#ff0000;"><strong><em>GLoble partners</em></strong></span></p><p>The Wadia Group of India along with Groupe Danone of France, are equal shareholders in ABIL, UK which is a major shareholder in Britannia Industries Limited. GROUPE DANONE is an International FMCG Major specializing in Fresh Dairy Products, Bottled Water and Biscuits/Cereals. One of the World leaders in the food industry, these are some of the laurels it possesses:<br />No # 1 worldwide in Fresh Dairy Products<br />No # 1 worldwide equally placed in Bottled Water (by volume)<br />No # 2 worldwide in Biscuits and Cereal Products Through its three core businesses (Fresh Dairy Products, Beverages and Biscuits and Cereal Products), GROUPE DANONE is committed to improving the lives of people around the world by providing them with better food products, a wider variety of flavors and healthier pleasures. Its dominant position worldwide is based on major international brands and on its solid presence in local markets (about 70% of global sales come from brands that are local market leaders). GROUPE DANONE is recognized for the dynamism and strength of its brands:<br />Danone: the leading brand worldwide for Fresh Dairy Products; DANONE represents almost 20% of the international market. DANONE is present in 40 countries worldwide.<br />Evian: the best selling mineral water brand, with 1.5 billion bottles sold every year. Present in the 5 continents, in 125 countries.<br />LU: the second brand worldwide, the first biscuits brand of GROUPE DANONE, which represents almost the half of the sales for the Biscuits and Cereal Products division. LU is mainly present in Western Europe.<br />Wahaha: the leading brand for refreshing still water (water, ready made tea, fruit juices). The brand is one of the most popular in China, with more than 1.5 billion liters of water sold each year. Its name means "the child who laughs". Financial results:<br />Net sales in 2004: 13,024 million Euros (+6.1% at comparable scope)<br />Operational Income: 1,706 million Euros<br />Operating Margin: 13.1% (+40 base points in relation to 2004).<br />Re-birth of Tiger - 'Swasth Khao, Tiger Ban Jao' becomes the popular chant!<br />Britannia launched 'Greetings' range of premium assorted gift packs<br />The new plant in Uttaranchal, commissioned ahead of schedule.<br />The launch of yet another exciting snacking option - Britannia 50-50 Pepper Chakkar </p><br /><p></p><br /><p></p><strong><span style="font-size:130%;color:#ff6666;"><em><span style="color:#cc0000;">A</span>nnual <span style="color:#ff6666;">Per</span>formance (FY 2006)</em></span></strong><br /><p></p><p>Britannia's gross sales turnover increased to Rs 18,179 mn in 2005-06 from Rs 16,154 mn in the previous year, registering a growth of 13%. Operating profit at Rs 1,763 mn increased by 7%, profit before tax and exceptional items at Rs. 1,958 mn declined by 19% against 2004-05 , impacted by the profit on sale of long term investments that accrued to 'other income' last year.<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjXGKeOnULwYwR3f_s6C5Kki0ZhWfsbhUwLIunGr8XzTRCu_1K7brISaY0p1VJcN6IVzUkj4TK29K_Hquq9Jhz1q7grSGG1YIhDTXY1r6q7uvR-_2GDo-W8jW35CSkrffPUyvx-8wQvIBc_/s1600-h/BRITANIYA.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5094801520145034338" style="FLOAT: left; MARGIN: 0px 10px 10px 0px; CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjXGKeOnULwYwR3f_s6C5Kki0ZhWfsbhUwLIunGr8XzTRCu_1K7brISaY0p1VJcN6IVzUkj4TK29K_Hquq9Jhz1q7grSGG1YIhDTXY1r6q7uvR-_2GDo-W8jW35CSkrffPUyvx-8wQvIBc_/s400/BRITANIYA.jpg" border="0" /></a> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p><br /> </p>कविताhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00210732358968428325noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6041784366759394807.post-28854028590087524912007-08-03T02:19:00.000-07:002007-08-03T02:20:08.242-07:00BSESENSEX - THE BAROMETER OF INDIAN CAPITAL MARKETS<br /><a class="class1" href="http://www.bseindia.com/downloads/about/INDICES.zip">Download Index Constituents</a><a class="class1" href="http://www.bseindia.com/search/notices/index.asp" target="_blank">Click to search Historical Notices on Index Replacements</a><br />Introduction<br />For the premier Stock Exchange that pioneered the stock broking activity in India, 128 years of experience seems to be a proud milestone. A lot has changed since 1875 when 318 persons became members of what today is called "The Stock Exchange, Mumbai" by paying a princely amount of Re1.Since then, the country's capital markets have passed through both good and bad periods. The journey in the 20th century has not been an easy one. Till the decade of eighties, there was no scale to measure the ups and downs in the Indian stock market. The Stock Exchange, Mumbai (BSE) in 1986 came out with a stock index that subsequently became the barometer of the Indian stock market.SENSEX is not only scientifically designed but also based on globally accepted construction and review methodology. First compiled in 1986, SENSEX is a basket of 30 constituent stocks representing a sample of large, liquid and representative companies. The base year of SENSEX is 1978-79 and the base value is 100. The index is widely reported in both domestic and international markets through print as well as electronic media.The Index was initially calculated based on the "Full Market Capitalization" methodology but was shifted to the free-float methodology with effect from September 1, 2003. The "Free-float Market Capitalization" methodology of index construction is regarded as an industry best practice globally. All major index providers like MSCI, FTSE, STOXX, S&P and Dow Jones use the Free-float methodology.Due to is wide acceptance amongst the Indian investors; SENSEX is regarded to be the pulse of the Indian stock market. As the oldest index in the country, it provides the time series data over a fairly long period of time (From 1979 onwards). Small wonder, the SENSEX has over the years become one of the most prominent brands in the country.The growth of equity markets in India has been phenomenal in the decade gone by. Right from early nineties the stock market witnessed heightened activity in terms of various bull and bear runs. The SENSEX captured all these events in the most judicial manner. One can identify the booms and busts of the Indian stock market through SENSEX.SENSEX Calculation MethodologySENSEX is calculated using the "Free-float Market Capitalization" methodology. As per this methodology, the level of index at any point of time reflects the Free-float market value of 30 component stocks relative to a base period. The market capitalization of a company is determined by multiplying the price of its stock by the number of shares issued by the company. This market capitalization is further multiplied by the free-float factor to determine the free-float market capitalization.The base period of SENSEX is 1978-79 and the base value is 100 index points. This is often indicated by the notation 1978-79=100. The calculation of SENSEX involves dividing the Free-float market capitalization of 30 companies in the Index by a number called the Index Divisor. The Divisor is the only link to the original base period value of the SENSEX. It keeps the Index comparable over time and is the adjustment point for all Index adjustments arising out of corporate actions, replacement of scrips etc. During market hours, prices of the index scrips, at which latest trades are executed, are used by the trading system to calculate SENSEX every 15 seconds and disseminated in real time.Dollex-30BSE also calculates a dollar-linked version of SENSEX and historical values of this index are available since its inception. (For more details click ‘<a href="http://www.bseindia.com/about/abindices/dollex1.asp" color="#e6eef1">Dollex series of BSE indices</a>’)Understanding Free-float MethodologyConcept:Free-float Methodology refers to an index construction methodology that takes into consideration only the free-float market capitalization of a company for the purpose of index calculation and assigning weight to stocks in Index. Free-float market capitalization is defined as that proportion of total shares issued by the company that are readily available for trading in the market. It generally excludes promoters' holding, government holding, strategic holding and other locked-in shares that will not come to the market for trading in the normal course. In other words, the market capitalization of each company in a Free-float index is reduced to the extent of its readily available shares in the market.In India, BSE pioneered the concept of Free-float by launching BSE TECk in July 2001 and BANKEX in June 2003. While BSE TECk Index is a TMT benchmark, BANKEX is positioned as a benchmark for the banking sector stocks. SENSEX becomes the third index in India to be based on the globally accepted Free-float Methodology.Major advantages of Free-float Methodology:<br />A Free-float index reflects the market trends more rationally as it takes into consideration only those shares that are available for trading in the market.<br />Free-float Methodology makes the index more broad-based by reducing the concentration of top few companies in Index. For example, the concentration of top five companies in SENSEX has fallen under the free-float scenario thereby making the SENSEX more diversified and broad-based.<br />A Free-float index aids both active and passive investing styles. It aids active managers by enabling them to benchmark their fund returns vis-à-vis an investable index. This enables an apple-to-apple comparison thereby facilitating better evaluation of performance of active managers. Being a perfectly replicable portfolio of stocks, a Free-float adjusted index is best suited for the passive managers as it enables them to track the index with the least tracking error.<br />Free-float Methodology improves index flexibility in terms of including any stock from the universe of listed stocks. This improves market coverage and sector coverage of the index. For example, under a Full-market capitalization methodology, companies with large market capitalization and low free-float cannot generally be included in the Index because they tend to distort the index by having an undue influence on the index movement. However, under the Free-float Methodology, since only the free-float market capitalization of each company is considered for index calculation, it becomes possible to include such closely held companies in the index while at the same time preventing their undue influence on the index movement.<br />Globally, the Free-float Methodology of index construction is considered to be an industry best practice and all major index providers like MSCI, FTSE, S&P and STOXX have adopted the same. MSCI, a leading global index provider, shifted all its indices to the Free-float Methodology in 2002. The MSCI India Standard Index, which is followed by Foreign Institutional Investors (FIIs) to track Indian equities, is also based on the Free-float Methodology. NASDAQ-100, the underlying index to the famous Exchange Traded Fund (ETF) - QQQ is based on the Free-float Methodology.Definition of Free-float:<br />Share holdings held by investors that would not, in the normal course come into the open market for trading are treated as 'Controlling/ Strategic Holdings' and hence not included in free-float. In specific, the following categories of holding are generally excluded from the definition of Free-float:<br />Holdings by founders/directors/ acquirers which has control element<br />Holdings by persons/ bodies with "Controlling Interest"<br />Government holding as promoter/acquirer<br />Holdings through the FDI Route<br />Strategic stakes by private corporate bodies/ individuals<br />Equity held by associate/group companies (cross-holdings)<br />Equity held by Employee Welfare Trusts<br />Locked-in shares and shares which would not be sold in the open market in normal course.The remaining shareholders would fall under the Free-float category.Determining Free-float factors of companies:<br />BSE has designed a Free-float format, which is filled and submitted by all index companies on a quarterly basis with the Exchange. (Format available on <a href="http://www.bseindia.com/">www.bseindia.com</a>) The Exchange determines the Free-float factor for each company based on the detailed information submitted by the companies in the prescribed format. Free-float factor is a multiple with which the total market capitalization of a company is adjusted to arrive at the Free-float market capitalization. Once the Free-float of a company is determined, it is rounded-off to the higher multiple of 5 and each company is categorized into one of the 20 bands given below. A Free-float factor of say 0.55 means that only 55% of the market capitalization of the company will be considered for index calculation.Free-float Bands:<br />% Free-Float<br />Free-Float Factor<br />% Free-Float<br />Free-Float Factor<br />>0 – 5%<br />0.05<br />>50 – 55%<br />0.55<br />>5 – 10%<br />0.10<br />>55 – 60%<br />0.60<br />>10 – 15%<br />0.15<br />>60 – 65%<br />0.65<br />>15 – 20%<br />0.20<br />>65 – 70%<br />0.70<br />>20 – 25%<br />0.25<br />>70 – 75%<br />0.75<br />>25 – 30%<br />0.30<br />>75 – 80%<br />0.80<br />>30 – 35%<br />0.35<br />>80 – 85%<br />0.85<br />>35 – 40%<br />0.40<br />>85 – 90%<br />0.90<br />>40 – 45%<br />0.45<br />>90 – 95%<br />0.95<br />>45 – 50%<br />0.50<br />>95 – 100%<br />1.00Index Closure Algorithm<br />The closing SENSEX on any trading day is computed taking the weighted average of all the trades on SENSEX constituents in the last 30 minutes of trading session. If a SENSEX constituent has not traded in the last 30 minutes, the last traded price is taken for computation of the Index closure. If a SENSEX constituent has not traded at all in a day, then its last day's closing price is taken for computation of Index closure. The use of Index Closure Algorithm prevents any intentional manipulation of the closing index value.Maintenance of SENSEXOne of the important aspects of maintaining continuity with the past is to update the base year average. The base year value adjustment ensures that replacement of stocks in Index, additional issue of capital and other corporate announcements like 'rights issue' etc. do not destroy the historical value of the index. The beauty of maintenance lies in the fact that adjustments for corporate actions in the Index should not per se affect the index values.The Index Cell of the exchange does the day-to-day maintenance of the index within the broad index policy framework set by the Index Committee. The Index Cell ensures that SENSEX and all the other BSE indices maintain their benchmark properties by striking a delicate balance between frequent replacements in index and maintaining its historical continuity. The Index Committee of the Exchange comprises of experts on capital markets from all major market segments. They include Academicians, Fund-managers from leading Mutual Funds, Finance-Journalists, Market Participants, Independent Governing Board members, and Exchange administration.On-Line Computation of the Index:During market hours, prices of the index scrips, at which trades are executed, are automatically used by the trading computer to calculate the SENSEX every 15 seconds and continuously updated on all trading workstations connected to the BSE trading computer in real time.Adjustment for Bonus, Rights and Newly issued Capital:The arithmetic calculation involved in calculating SENSEX is simple, but problem arises when one of the component stocks pays a bonus or issues rights shares. If no adjustments were made, a discontinuity would arise between the current value of the index and its previous value despite the non-occurrence of any economic activity of substance. At the Index Cell of the Exchange, the base value is adjusted, which is used to alter market capitalization of the component stocks to arrive at the SENSEX value.The Index Cell of the Exchange keeps a close watch on the events that might affect the index on a regular basis and carries out daily maintenance of all the 14 Indices.<br />Adjustments for Rights Issues:When a company, included in the compilation of the index, issues right shares, the free-float market capitalisation of that company is increased by the number of additional shares issued based on the theoretical (ex-right) price. An offsetting or proportionate adjustment is then made to the Base Market Capitalisation (see 'Base Market Capitalisation Adjustment' below).<br />Adjustments for Bonus Issue:When a company, included in the compilation of the index, issues bonus shares, the market capitalisation of that company does not undergo any change. Therefore, there is no change in the Base Market Capitalisation, only the 'number of shares' in the formula is updated.<br />Other Issues:Base Market Capitalisation Adjustment is required when new shares are issued by way of conversion of debentures, mergers, spin-offs etc. or when equity is reduced by way of buy-back of shares, corporate restructuring etc.<br />Base Market Capitalisation Adjustment:<br />The formula for adjusting the Base Market Capitalisation is as follows:<br />New Market Capitalisation<br />New Base Market Capitalisation<br />=<br />Old Base Market Capitalisation<br />x<br />---------------------------------------<br />Old Market Capitalisation<br />To illustrate, suppose a company issues right shares which increases the market capitalisation of the shares of that company by say, Rs.100 crores. The existing Base Market Capitalisation (Old Base Market Capitalisation), say, is Rs.2450 crores and the aggregate market capitalisation of all the shares included in the index before the right issue is made is, say Rs.4781 crores. The "New Base Market Capitalisation " will then be:<br />2450 x (4781+100)<br />--------------------------<br />=<br />Rs.2501.24 crores<br /> 4781<br />This figure of 2501.24 will be used as the Base Market Capitalisation for calculating the index number from then onwards till the next base change becomes necessary.<br /><a href="http://www.bseindia.com/about/indices.asp">Back</a><br /><a name="criteria"></a><br />SENSEX - Scrip selection criteria:<br />The general guidelines for selection of constituents in SENSEX are as follows:<br />Listed History:The scrip should have a listing history of at least 3 months at BSE. Exception may be considered if full market capitalisation of a newly listed company ranks among top 10 in the list of BSE universe. In case, a company is listed on account of merger/ demerger/ amalgamation, minimum listing history would not be required.<br />Trading Frequency:The scrip should have been traded on each and every trading day in the last three months. Exceptions can be made for extreme reasons like scrip suspension etc.<br />Final Rank:The scrip should figure in the top 100 companies listed by final rank. The final rank is arrived at by assigning 75% weightage to the rank on the basis of three-month average full market capitalisation and 25% weightage to the liquidity rank based on three-month average daily turnover & three-month average impact cost.<br />Market Capitalization Weightage:The weightage of each scrip in SENSEX based on three-month average free-float market capitalisation should be at least 0.5% of the Index.<br />Industry Representation:Scrip selection would generally take into account a balanced representation of the listed companies in the universe of BSE.<br />Track Record:In the opinion of the Committee, the company should have an acceptable track record.Index Review Frequency:The Index Committee meets every quarter to discuss index related issues. In case of a revision in the Index constituents, the announcement of the incoming and outgoing scrips is made six weeks in advance of the actual implementation of the revision of the Index.<br /><a href="http://www.bseindia.com/about/indices.asp">Back</a><a name="reconstitution"></a><br />History of replacement of scrips in SENSEX<br />Date<br />Outgoing Scrips<br />Replaced by<br />01.01.1986<br />Bombay Burmah<br />Voltas<br /><br />Asian Cables<br />Peico<br /><br />Crompton Greaves<br />Premier Auto.<br /><br />Scinda<br />G.E.Shipping<br /><br /><br /><br />03.08.1992<br />Zenith Ltd.<br />Bharat Forge<br /><br /><br /><br />19.08.1996<br />Ballarpur Inds.<br />Arvind Mills<br /><br />Bharat Forge<br />Bajaj Auto<br /><br />Bombay Dyeing<br />BHEL<br /><br />Ceat Tyres<br />BSES<br /><br />Century Text.<br />Colgate<br /><br />GSFC<br />Guj. Amb. Cement<br /><br />Hind. Motors<br />HPCL<br /><br />Indian Organic<br />ICICI<br /><br />Indian Rayon<br />IDBI<br /><br />Kirloskar Cummins<br />IPCL<br /><br />Mukand Iron<br />MTNL<br /><br />Phlips<br />Ranbaxy Lab.<br /><br />Premier Auto<br />State Bank of India<br /><br />Siemens<br />Steel Authority of India<br /><br />Voltas<br />Tata Chem<br /><br /><br /><br />16.11.1998<br />Arvind Mills<br />Castrol<br /><br />G. E. Shipping<br />Infosys Technologies<br /><br />IPCL<br />NIIT Ltd.<br /><br />Steel Authority of India<br />Novartis<br /><br /><br /><br />10.04.2000<br />I.D.B.I<br />Dr. Reddy’s Laboratories<br /><br />Indian Hotels<br />Reliance Petroleum<br /><br />Tata Chem<br />Satyam Computers<br /><br />Tata Power<br />Zee Telefilms<br /><br /><br /><br />08.01.2001<br />Novartis<br />Cipla Ltd.<br /><br /><br /><br />07.01.2002<br />NIIT Ltd.<br />HCL Technologies<br /><br />Mahindra & Mahindra<br />Hero Honda Motors Ltd.<br /><br /><br /><br />31.05.2002<br />ICICI Ltd.<br />ICICI Bank Ltd.<br /><br /><br /><br />10.10.2002<br />Reliance Petroleum Ltd.<br />HDFC Ltd.<br /><br /><br /><br />10.11.2003<br />Castrol India Ltd.<br />Bharti-Tele-Ventures Ltd.<br /><br />Colgate Palomive (India) Ltd.<br />HDFC Bank Ltd.<br /><br />Glaxo Smithkline Pharma. Ltd.<br />ONGC Ltd.<br /><br />HCL Technologies Ltd.<br />Tata Power Company Ltd.<br /><br />Nestle (India) Ltd.<br />Wipro Ltd.<br /><br /><br /><br />19.05.2004<br />Larsen & Toubro Ltd.<br />Maruti Udyog Ltd.<br /><br /><br /><br />27.09.2004<br />Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Ltd.<br />Larsen & Toubro Ltd.<br /><br /><br /><br />06.06.2005<br />Hindustan Petroleum Corp Ltd.<br />National Thermal Power Corpn. Ltd.<br />Zee Telefilms Ltd.<br />Tata Consultancy Services Ltd.<br /><br /><br /><br />12.06.2006<br />Tata Power Ltd.<br />Reliance Communiation Ventures Ltd.<br /><br /><br /><br />09.07.2007<br />Hero Honda Motors Ltd.<br />Mahindra & Mahindra Ltd.कविताhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00210732358968428325noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6041784366759394807.post-18026563007412928532007-07-26T04:13:00.000-07:002007-07-26T05:40:56.586-07:00<p><strong><em><span style="color:#ff6666;">Stock Exchanges In India<br /></span></em></strong>Stock Exchanges are an organised marketplace, either corporation or mutual organisation, where members of the organisation gather to trade company stocks and other securities. The members may act either as agents for their customers, or as principals for their own accounts.Stock exchanges also facilitates for the issue and redemption of securities and other financial instruments including the payment of income and dividends. The record keeping is central but trade is linked to such physical place because modern markets are computerised. The trade on an exchange is only by members and stock broker do have a seat on the exchange. </p><br /><p><br />List of Stock Exchanges In India</p><br /><p align="justify"><br />1 <a href="http://www.surfindia.com/finance/bombay-stock-exchange.html">Bombay Stock Exchange</a><br />2 <a href="http://www.surfindia.com/finance/national-stock-exchange.html">National Stock Exchange</a><br />3 <a href="http://www.surfindia.com/finance/regional-stock-exchanges.html">Regional Stock Exchanges</a><br /><br /><em><strong>History of Stock Exchanges In India</strong></em>:In 1860, the exchange flourished with 60 brokers. In fact the 'Share Mania' in India began with the American Civil War broke and the cotton supply from the US to Europe stopped. Further the brokers increased to 250.At the end of the war in 1874, the market found a place in a street (now called Dalal Street). In 1887, "Native Share and Stock Brokers' Association" was established. In 1895, the exchange acquired a premise in the street which was inaugurated in 1899.</p><br /><p align="justify"></p><br /><p align="justify">A very common name for all traders in the stockmarket, BSE, stands for Bombay Stock Exchange. The oldest market not only in the country, but also in Asia. The early days of BSE was known as "The Native Share & Stock Brokers Association." It was established in the year 1875 and became the first stock exchange in the country to be recognised by the government. In 1956, BSE obtained a permanent recognition from the Government of India under the Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act, 1956.</p><br /><p align="justify">In the past and even now, it plays a pivotal role in the development of the country's capital market. This is recognised worldwide and its index, SENSEX, is also tracked worldwide. Earlier it was an Association of Persons (AOP), but now it is a demutualised and corporatised entity incorporated under the provisions of the Companies Act, 1956, pursuant to the BSE (Corporatisation and Demutualisation) Scheme, 2005 notified by the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI).</p><br /><p align="justify"><br /><strong><em>BSE Vision: </em></strong>The vision of the Bombay Stock Exchange is to "Emerge as the premier Indian stock exchange by establishing global benchmarks."</p><br /><p align="justify"><br /><strong><em>BSE Management:</em></strong>Bombay Stock Exchage is managed professionally by Board of Directors. It comprises of eminent professionals, representatives of Trading Members and the Managing Director. The Board is an inclusive one and is shaped to benefit from the market intermediaries participation.The Board exercises complete control and formulates larger policy issues. The day-to-day operations of BSE is managed by the Managing Director and its school of professionsl as a management team. </p><br /><p align="justify"><br /><strong><em>BSE Network:</em></strong>The Exchange reaches physically to 417 cities and towns in the country. The framework of it has been designed to safeguard market integrity and to operate with transparency. It provides an efficient market for the trading in equity, debt instruments and derivatives. Its online trading system, poularly known as BOLT, is a proprietory system and it is BS 7799-2-2002 certified. The BOLT network was expanded, nationwide, in 1997. The surveillance and clearing & settlement functions of the Exchange are ISO 9001:2000 certified.<br /><strong><em></em></strong></p><br /><p align="justify">Convention HallThe Bombay Stock Exchange provides convention hall for listed companies and other Institutions to hold their Annual/ordinary General Meetings, Listing ceremonies, Analyst and any other important event.</p><br /><p align="justify">It is centrally located at which can be easily reached from Churchgate or CST (VT) railway stations. It has a capacity of around 700 to 900 persons with state-of-the-art infrastructure. The hall has Projection Equipment, Web-cast facility and a Business Room with Facsimile, Internet, Photocpier and telecom equipment.<br /><strong><em>BSE Facts</em></strong><br />First in India to introduce Equity Derivatives<br />First in India to launch a Free Float Index<br />First in India to launch US$ version of BSE Sensex<br />First in India to launch Exchange Enabled Internet Trading Platform<br />First in India to obtain ISO certification for Surveillance, Clearing & Settlement<br />'BSE On-Line Trading System (BOLT) has been awarded the globally recognised the Information Security Management System standard BS7799-2:2002.<br />First to have an exclusive facility for financial training</p><br /><p align="justify"><br /><strong><em><span style="color:#ff6666;">BSE Helpdesk</span></em></strong>BSE has made arrangement for a toll-free numbers which makes it easier for customers to contact. A focussed number helps in providing best support to the customers. The toll-free number is as mentioned below:Toll-Free: 1600 22 6661Members who are not in Mumbai can also call up this number without dialling the area code of Mumbai from there local telephone line (not a STD line). Currently the facility is available to 101 cities in India where MTNL has toll free services.</p><br /><p align="justify"><strong><em><span style="color:#000000;">National Stock Exchange (NSE)</span></em></strong><br />The National Stock Exchange of India (NSE) was incorporated in November 1992 as a tax-paying company. It is recognised under Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act, 1956 in 1993 as a stock exchange. In June 1994, it commenced operations in the Wholesale Debt Market (WDM). In November, the same year, the Capital Market (Equities) segment commenced operations and the Derivatives segment in June 2000.</p><br /><p align="justify">--</p><br /><p align="justify"><a href="http://www.nseindia.com/homepage.htm" target="f2"></a><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5091470626978098194" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhjGYgDw5zMltmL83Lus4P_Lj0-Uj6VpxjomHPJR_BQX4RPVpLpJzU_w71lFIsXJoOqpFAxSIX2id0n6Utj45ZkduNQxbHx6FQtR_IVmgZI_dk358iMYDeLbT8AFTYWsvau-ijbTti_pnDG/s400/nselogo.gif" border="0" /><br /><strong><em><span style="font-size:180%;"><span style="color:#990000;">NSE Group</span><br /></span><span style="font-size:130%;">National Securities Clearing Corporation Ltd. (NSCCL)</span></em></strong></p><br /><p align="justify"><strong><em><span style="font-size:130%;"></span></em></strong>It is a wholly owned subsidiary, which was incorporated in August 1995 and commenced clearing operations in April 1996. It was formed to build confidence in clearing and settlement of securities, to promote and maintain the short and consitent settlement cycles, to provide a counter-party risk guarantee and to operate a tight risk containment system.<br /><em><strong><span style="font-size:130%;">NSE.IT Ltd.</span></strong></em></p><br /><p align="justify"><strong><em><span style="font-size:130%;"></span></em></strong>It is also a wholly owned subsidiary of NSE and is its IT arm. This arm of the NSE is uniquely positioned to provide products, services and solutions for the securities industry. NSE.IT primarily focus on in the area of trading, broker front-end and back-office, clearing and settlement, web-based, insurance, etc. Along with this, it also provides consultancy and implementation services in Data Warehousing, Business Continuity Plans, Site Maintenance and Backups, Stratus Mainframe Facility Management, Real Time Market Analysis & Financial News.<br /><strong><em><span style="font-size:130%;">India Index Services & Products Ltd. (IISL)</span></em></strong> It is a jointventure between NSE and CRISIL Ltd. to provide a variety of indices and index related services and products for the Indian Capital markets. It was set up in May 1998. IISL has a consulting and licensing agreement with the Standard and Poor's (S&P), world's leading provider of investible equity indices, for co-branding equity indices.<br /><strong><em><span style="font-size:130%;">National Securities Depository Ltd. (NSDL)</span></em></strong>NSE joined hands with IDBI and UTI to promote dematerialisation of securities. This step was taken to solve problems related to trading in physical securities. It commenced operations in November 1996.<br />DotEx International LimitedDotEx was formed to provide a well structured inter trading platform for the members to further offer online trading facilities to their customers. With this facility, the members can serve a larger clientele with the use of automated risk management features and hence increase the volume. The investors also get comprehensive and updated information through it.<br /><strong><em>NSE Facts</em></strong><br />It uses satellite communication technology to energise participation from around 400 cities in India.<br />NSE can handle up to 1 million trades per day.<br />It is one of the largest interactive VSAT based stock exchanges in the world.<br />The NSE- network is the largest private wide area network in India and the first extended C- Band VSAT network in the world.<br />Presently more than 9000 users are trading on the real time-online NSE application.<br /><strong><em>NSE Offices<br />Corporate Office</em></strong><br />National Stock Exchange of India Ltd.<br />Exchange Plaza<br />Plot no. C/1, G Block<br />Bandra-Kurla Complex<br />Bandra (E)<br />Mumbai - 400 051<br />India<br />Tel: +(91)-(22)-26598100 - 8114<br />Fax: +(91)-(22)-26598120<br />E-mail: cc_nse@nse.co.in<br />Branch Offices<br />406 Sakar II<br />Near Ellis Bridge<br />Ahmedabad - 380 006<br />India<br />Tel: +(91)-(79)-26580212, 26580213<br />Fax: +(91)-(79)-2657 6123<br />7th Floor, Arihant Nitco Park<br />90, Dr. Radhakrishnan Salai<br />Mylapore, Chennai - 600 004<br />India<br />Tel: +(91)-(44)-28475100, 28473670<br />Fax: +(91)-(44)-28473633<br />"Thapar House" Western Wing<br />Mezzanine Floor<br />Janpath Lane, 124, Janpath<br />Connaught Place<br />New Delhi 110 001<br />India<br />Tel: +(91)-(11)-23344313 - 23344327<br />Fax: +(91)-(11)-23366658<br />H No.3-6-322<br />Mahavir House, IInd Floor<br />Chamber no.203 & 204<br />Basheerbagh, Hyderabad : 500029<br />India<br />Tel: +(91)-(40)-23227084, 23227085<br />Fax: +(91)-(40)-23227086<br />Ideal Plaza<br />11 / 1, Sarat Bose Road<br />Kolkata - 700 020<br />India<br />Tel: +(91)-(33)-22805950-55, 22801202 - 1205<br />Fax: +(91)-(33)-22831859, 22805957<br />NSE Website:<br /><a href="http://www.nseindia.com/" target="_blank">http://www.nseindia.com/</a></p><p align="justify"> </p><p align="justify"><strong><em><span style="font-size:130%;"><span style="font-size:180%;">Regional Stock Exchanges (RSE)</span><br /></span></em></strong>There are 23 stock exchanges in India. Among them two are national level stock exchanges namely Bombay Stock Exchang (BSE) and National Stock Exchange of India (NSE). The rest 21 are Regional Stock Exchanges (RSE).<br />List of Regional Stock Exchanges in India<br /><a href="http://www.surfindia.com/finance/ahmedabad-stock-exchange.html">Ahmedabad Stock Exchange</a><br /><a href="http://www.surfindia.com/finance/bangalore-stock-exchange.html">Bangalore Stock Exchange</a><br /><a href="http://www.surfindia.com/finance/bhubaneshwar-stock-exchange.html">Bhubaneshwar Stock Exchange</a><br /><a href="http://www.surfindia.com/finance/calcutta-stock-exchange.html">Calcutta Stock Exchange</a><br /><a href="http://www.surfindia.com/finance/cochin-stock-exchange.html">Cochin Stock Exchange</a><br /><a href="http://www.surfindia.com/finance/coimbatore-stock-exchange.html">Coimbatore Stock Exchange</a><br /><a href="http://www.surfindia.com/finance/delhi-stock-exchange.html">Delhi Stock Exchange</a><br /><a href="http://www.surfindia.com/finance/guwahati-stock-exchange.html">Guwahati Stock Exchange</a><br /><a href="http://www.surfindia.com/finance/hyderabad-stock-exchange.html">Hyderabad Stock Exchange</a><br /><a href="http://www.surfindia.com/finance/jaipur-stock-exchange.html">Jaipur Stock Exchange</a><br /><a href="http://www.surfindia.com/finance/ludhiana-stock-exchange.html">Ludhiana Stock Exchange</a><br /><a href="http://www.surfindia.com/finance/madhya-pradesh-stock-exchange.html">Madhya Pradesh Stock Exchange</a><br /><a href="http://www.surfindia.com/finance/madras-stock-exchange.html">Madras Stock Exchange</a><br /><a href="http://www.surfindia.com/finance/magadh-stock-exchange.html">Magadh Stock Exchange</a><br /><a href="http://www.surfindia.com/finance/mangalore-stock-exchange.html">Mangalore Stock Exchange</a><br /><a href="http://www.surfindia.com/finance/meerut-stock-exchange.html">Meerut Stock Exchange</a><br /><a href="http://www.surfindia.com/finance/otc-exchange-india.html">OTC Exchange Of India</a><br /><a href="http://www.surfindia.com/finance/pune-stock-exchange.html">Pune Stock Exchange</a><br /><a href="http://www.surfindia.com/finance/kutch-stock-exchange.html">Saurashtra Kutch Stock Exchange</a><br /><a href="http://www.surfindia.com/finance/uttar-pradesh-stock-exchange.html">Uttar Pradesh Stock Exchange</a><br /><a href="http://www.surfindia.com/finance/vadodara-stock-exchange.html">Vadodara Stock Exchange</a><br />The Regional Stock Exchanges started clustering from the year 1894, when the first RSE, the Ahmedabad Stock Exchange (ASE) was established. In the year 1908, the second in the series, Calcutta Stock Exchange (CSE) came into exixtance.During the early sixties, there were only few recognized RSEs in India namely Calcutta, Madras, Ahmedabad, Delhi, Hyderabad and Indore. The number remained unchanged for the next two decades. 1980s was the turning point and many RSEs was incorporated. The latest is Coimbatore Stock Exchange and Meerut Stock Exchange.</p>कविताhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00210732358968428325noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6041784366759394807.post-91009241533678269542007-07-21T01:48:00.000-07:002007-07-21T02:39:07.992-07:00<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhwDK2hWtq7EdBpomyBrAQjZfTBV9n9yGh_HyUhGfNTQpA_T2hQWYP8lUgisQLGGN0If2A1iAioWLlaJdXsxDDzkWTnmRV99FWSt7gwS0rlFbqu7DlP7VCtGe6T0_hoj6iEGmHiXWJIb3i9/s1600-h/200px-Relcomm.gif"></a><br /><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh0VACgxwTkuAgsuHYx1A2gd6M4t5XoqkRHQdqLVOQTiSZUzEXuUAKoUYjOXwHr8g35tNfHXeoIdxhcLmv1Y14rj0uZZ01ytz8CGPW-SH8siSP40CN9t-fOabQXeqafcLCrPNnLtN56nDp0/s1600-h/Ril_logo.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5089570035230141426" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; WIDTH: 299px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 130px; TEXT-ALIGN: center" height="98" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh0VACgxwTkuAgsuHYx1A2gd6M4t5XoqkRHQdqLVOQTiSZUzEXuUAKoUYjOXwHr8g35tNfHXeoIdxhcLmv1Y14rj0uZZ01ytz8CGPW-SH8siSP40CN9t-fOabQXeqafcLCrPNnLtN56nDp0/s400/Ril_logo.jpg" width="237" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><div><br />Type Public (NSE: RELIANCE)<br />Founded 1966 As Reliance Commercial Corporation<br />Headquarters Mumbai, India<br />Key people Mukesh Ambani, Chairman & Managing Director<br />Industry <em>Oil Conglomerates</em>,<br />Products Petrolium Products,Retail Stores,Polymers,Polyesters,Chemicals,Textile.<br />Revenue Rs 1,10,886 crore (2007)<br />Employees ~90,358 (2004)</div><br /><div></div><br /><p> Reliance Industries (<a title="National Stock Exchange of India" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Stock_Exchange_of_India">NSE</a>: RELIANCE) is <a title="India" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India">India</a>'s largest <a title="Private sector" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_sector">private sector</a> company with a turnover of US $19.976 billion and profit of US $2.033 billion for the fiscal year ending in March <a title="2006" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006">2006</a> making it India's first and only private sector Fortune 500 company. <a class="external autonumber" title="http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/global500/2006/countries/I.html" href="http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/global500/2006/countries/I.html" rel="nofollow">[3]</a> It was founded by the late <a title="Dhirubhai Ambani" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhirubhai_Ambani">Dhirubhai Ambani</a> in the <a title="1966" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1966">1966</a>. After severe differences between the two sons of the founder Dhirubhai Ambani, the group was divided between the two feuding sons <a title="Mukesh Ambani" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mukesh_Ambani">Mukesh</a> and <a title="Anil Ambani" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anil_Ambani">Anil Ambani</a> in 2006.<br /></p><strong></strong><br /><ol><br /><li><strong>Contents</strong><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliance_Industries#Stock">1 Stock</a><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliance_Industries#Products">2 Products</a><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliance_Industries#Subsidiaries">3 Subsidiaries</a><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliance_Industries#Management">4 Management</a><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliance_Industries#Corporate_Rankings">5 Corporate Rankings</a><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliance_Industries#Awards">6 Awards</a><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliance_Industries#Awards_for_Managers">6.1 Awards for Managers</a><br /><br /><a id="Stock" name="Stock"></a><br /><strong>Stock</strong><br />According to the company website "1 out of every 4 investors in India is a Reliance shareholder." See. Reliance has more than 3 million shareholders, making it one of the world's most widely held stock. Reliance Industries Ltd, subsequent to its split in January 2006 has continued to grow from strength to strength. Reliance companies have been among the best performing in the Indian stock market<br /><a id="Products" name="Products"></a><br /><strong>Products</strong><br />Reliance Industries Limited has a wide range of products from <a title="Petroleum products" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_products">petroleum products</a>, <a title="Petrochemicals" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrochemicals">petrochemicals</a>, to <a title="Garments" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garments">garments</a> (under the brand name of Vimal).<br /><a id="Subsidiaries" name="Subsidiaries"></a><br /><strong>Subsidiaries<br /></strong>Reliance Petroleum Limited. Reliance Engineering Associates (P) Ltd. (REAL) Reliance Infosolutions Pvt Ltd.(RISL)<br /><a id="Management" name="Management"></a><br /><strong>Management</strong><br />It is headed by <a title="Dhirubhai Ambani" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhirubhai_Ambani">Dhirubhai's</a> son, Chairman <a title="Mukesh Ambani" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mukesh_Ambani">Mukesh Ambani</a>.<br /><a id="Corporate_Rankings" name="Corporate_Rankings"></a><br /><strong>Corporate Rankings</strong><br />RIL emerged as the first and only <a title="Private sector" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_sector">private sector company</a> from India to feature in the <a title="2006" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006">2006</a> <a title="Fortune Global 500" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortune_Global_500">Fortune Global 500</a> list (at rank 342) of the world's largest corporations .<br />RIL was featured on the <a title="Forbes Global 2000" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbes_Global_2000">Forbes Global 2000</a> list for <a title="2005" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005">2005</a> at position 298 .<br />RIL was the only Indian private sector company to be listed in the Top-500 companies in the world in terms of market value in Business Week's The Global 1000 List, July 2004.<br />Reliance emerged in top positions in Business Barons - TNS Mode Opinion Poll in August 2004<br /></li></ol><br /><ul><br /><li><strong>Awards</strong><br />International Refiner of the Year in 2005 at the 23rd Annual <a class="new" title="Hart's World Refining and Fuels Conference" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hart%27s_World_Refining_and_Fuels_Conference&action=edit">Hart's World Refining and Fuels Conference</a><br /><a id="Awards_for_Managers" name="Awards_for_Managers"></a><br /><strong>Awards for Managers</strong><br />Mukesh D. Ambani was conferred the Asia Society Leadership Award by the <a title="Asia Society" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia_Society">Asia Society</a>, Washington, USA, May 2004.<br />Mukesh D. Ambani ranked 13th in Asia's Power 25 list of The Most Powerful People in Business published by <a title="Fortune magazine" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortune_magazine">Fortune magazine</a>, August 2004.<br />Mukesh D. Ambani was chosen Telecom Man of the Year 2004 by Voice and Data magazine, September 2004.<br />Mukesh D. Ambani is Economic Times Business Leader of the Year<a class="image" title="Image:Ril_logo.jpg" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ril_logo.jpg"></a></li></ul></div>कविताhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00210732358968428325noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6041784366759394807.post-20323743344348674432007-07-18T09:38:00.000-07:002007-07-19T09:34:19.136-07:00<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgGhj27JP2LIg0RlCaNPgtL6m_ofuoVOSs5nELg8lizbVzM0icHU2Niw6b8YkYJ_1u1W788Vrf0kpX2tcGYH_UlbOHLP0EQrlncnn8eNMQ-cq2nFwr59mekjWmKtYKe0uBhKEpaDsBqUpKf/s1600-h/150px-WiproLogo.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5088577506642781874" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: pointer; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgGhj27JP2LIg0RlCaNPgtL6m_ofuoVOSs5nELg8lizbVzM0icHU2Niw6b8YkYJ_1u1W788Vrf0kpX2tcGYH_UlbOHLP0EQrlncnn8eNMQ-cq2nFwr59mekjWmKtYKe0uBhKEpaDsBqUpKf/s400/150px-WiproLogo.jpg" border="0" /></a> <table class="infobox vcard" style="FONT-SIZE: 90%; WIDTH: 23em"><tbody><tr><td>Type Public (<a title="NYSE" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NYSE">NYSE</a>: <a class="external text" title="http://www.nyse.com/about/listed/lcddata.html?ticker=" href="http://www.nyse.com/about/listed/lcddata.html?ticker=WIT" rel="nofollow">WIT</a>)</td></tr><tr><th style="PADDING-RIGHT: 0.75em; TEXT-ALIGN: right">Founded</th><td>1945</td></tr><tr><th class="label" style="PADDING-RIGHT: 0.75em; TEXT-ALIGN: right">Headquarters</th><td><a class="image" title="Flag of India" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Flag_of_India.svg"><img class="thumbborder" height="15" alt="Flag of India" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/22px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" width="22" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_India.svg" /></a> Bangalore</td></tr><tr><th style="PADDING-RIGHT: 0.75em; TEXT-ALIGN: right">Key people</th><td><a title="Azim Premji" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azim_Premji">Azim Premji</a>, Chairman and Managing Director</td></tr><tr class="note"><th style="PADDING-RIGHT: 0.75em; TEXT-ALIGN: right"><a title="Industry" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry">Industry</a></th><td><a title="Information technology" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technology">Information technology</a> services</td></tr><tr><th style="PADDING-RIGHT: 0.75em; TEXT-ALIGN: right"><a title="Revenue" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revenue">Revenue</a></th><td><a class="image" title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Green_Arrow_Up_Darker.svg"><img height="10" alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Green_Arrow_Up_Darker.svg/10px-Green_Arrow_Up_Darker.svg.png" width="10" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Green_Arrow_Up_Darker.svg" /></a>$3.47 billion USD</td></tr><tr><th style="PADDING-RIGHT: 0.75em; TEXT-ALIGN: right"><a title="Net income" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Net_income">Net income</a></th><td><a class="image" title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Green_Arrow_Up_Darker.svg"><img height="10" alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Green_Arrow_Up_Darker.svg/10px-Green_Arrow_Up_Darker.svg.png" width="10" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Green_Arrow_Up_Darker.svg" /></a>$677 million USD</td></tr><tr><th style="PADDING-RIGHT: 0.75em; TEXT-ALIGN: right"><a title="Employment" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employment">Employees</a></th><td>68,000+ (<a title="2006" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006">2006</a>)</td></tr><tr class="note"><th style="PADDING-RIGHT: 0.75em; TEXT-ALIGN: right"><a title="Slogan" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slogan">Slogan</a></th><td>Applied Innovation</td></tr><tr><th style="PADDING-RIGHT: 0.75em; TEXT-ALIGN: right"><a title="Website" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Website">Website</a></th><td><a class="external text" title="http://www.wipro.com/" href="http://www.wipro.com/" rel="nofollow">http://www.wipro.com/</a></td></tr></tbody></table><p><b>Wipro Technologies</b> (<a title="New York Stock Exchange" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Stock_Exchange">NYSE</a>: <a class="external text" title="http://www.nyse.com/about/listed/lcddata.html?ticker=" href="http://www.nyse.com/about/listed/lcddata.html?ticker=WIT" rel="nofollow">WIT</a>) is an <a title="Information technology" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technology">information technology</a> service company established in <a title="India" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India">India</a> in <a title="1980" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980">1980</a>. It is the global IT services arm of Wipro Limited (in operation since <a title="1945" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1945">1945</a>, incorporated <a title="1946" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1946">1946</a>). It is headquartered in <a title="Bangalore" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangalore">Bangalore</a> and is the third largest IT services company in India<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><a title="Wikipedia:Citing sources" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since June 2007" style="WHITE-SPACE: nowrap">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></a></sup>. It has 68,000 employees as of Apr 2007, including its <a title="Business process outsourcing in India" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_process_outsourcing_in_India">business process outsourcing</a> (BPO) arm which it acquired in 2002.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-0"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wipro#_note-0">[1]</a></sup></p><p>Wipro Technologies has over 300 customers across <a title="USA" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA">USA</a>, <a title="Europe" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe">Europe</a> and <a title="Japan" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan">Japan</a> including 50 of the <a title="Fortune 500" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortune_500">Fortune 500</a> companies. Some of its customers are <a title="Boeing" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing">Boeing</a>, <a title="BP" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BP">BP</a>, <a title="Cisco" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisco">Cisco</a>, <a title="Ericsson" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ericsson">Ericsson</a>, <a title="IBM" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM">IBM</a>, <a title="Microsoft" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft">Microsoft</a>, <a title="Prudential" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prudential">Prudential</a>, <a title="Seagate" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seagate">Seagate</a>, <a title="Sony" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony">Sony</a>, and <a title="Toshiba" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toshiba">Toshiba</a>.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><a title="Wikipedia:Citing sources" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since April 2007" style="WHITE-SPACE: nowrap">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></a></sup> It is listed on the <a title="New York Stock Exchange" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Stock_Exchange">New York Stock Exchange</a> and is part of its TMT (technology media telecom) index.</p><p>With revenue in the excess of US $3 billion, Wipro is one of India's major IT companies. It has dedicated development centers and offices across India, Europe, North America, Latin America and Asia Pacific. The current <a title="Chairman" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chairman">Chairman</a>, <a title="Managing Director" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Managing_Director">Managing Director</a> and majority stake owner is <a title="Azim Premji" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azim_Premji">Azim Premji</a>, who has headed the software and hardware divisions since Wipro's inception.</p><p>Wipro's Tagline is "applied innovation", the ability to infuse newer ideas and newer ways of doing things.</p><table class="toc" id="toc" summary="Contents"><tbody><tr><td><div id="toctitle"><h2>Contents</h2></div><ul><li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wipro#Services"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Services</span></a></li><li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wipro#History"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wipro#Time_line"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Time line</span></a></li></ul></li><li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wipro#References"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li><li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wipro#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li></ul></td></tr></tbody></table><script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><br /><p><a id="Services" name="Services"></a></p><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Services</span></h2><p>Wipro Technologies offers end-to-end software solutions. Software services offered include <a title="E-commerce" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-commerce">e-commerce</a>, <a title="Business process re-engineering" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_process_re-engineering">business process re-engineering</a>, system migration, maintenance of <a title="Legacy systems" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legacy_systems">legacy systems</a>, <a title="System integration" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_integration">system integration</a> and others.</p><p>Examples of Wipro's product design work include developing an Internet-browsing phone for a Japanese telecom company in 1998, helping chipmaker Texas Instruments produce digital signal processing software, and creating an automotive display unit for Italian manufacturer Magneti Marelli that combined functions including cell phone capability, global position system technology, a navigation system and a CD player.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><a title="Wikipedia:Citing sources" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since April 2007" style="WHITE-SPACE: nowrap">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></a></sup></p><p>Wipro's competitors include<a class="new" title="COGNIZANT" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=COGNIZANT&action=edit">COGNIZANT</a>,<a class="new" title="GUN Solutions" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=GUN_Solutions&action=edit">GUN Solutions</a>, <a title="Accenture" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accenture">Accenture</a>, <a title="CA, Inc." href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CA,_Inc.">CA</a>, <a title="Capgemini" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capgemini">Capgemini</a>, <a title="EDS" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EDS">EDS</a>, <a title="KPIT Cummins" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPIT_Cummins">KPIT Cummins</a>, <a title="IBM" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM">IBM</a>, <a title="Infosys" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infosys">Infosys</a>, <a title="Tata Consultancy Services" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Consultancy_Services">TCS</a> , <a title="Satyam" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satyam">Satyam</a>, S2 Technical Strategies, <a title="LogicaCMG" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LogicaCMG">LogicaCMG</a>, <a title="Patni" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patni">Patni</a>,<a title="CTS" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CTS">CTS</a> and <a title="HCL" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HCL">HCL</a>.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><a title="Wikipedia:Citing sources" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since April 2007" style="WHITE-SPACE: nowrap">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></a></sup></p><p><a id="History" name="History"></a></p><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2><p>Wipro was set up in <a title="Amalner" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amalner">Amalner</a>, <a title="Maharashtra" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a> in 1945. Primarily an edible oil factory, the chief products were Sunflower <a title="Vanaspati" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanaspati">Vanaspati</a> and 787 laundry <a title="Soap" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soap">soap</a> (a by-product of the Vanaspati operations). The company was called <b>W</b>estern <b>I</b>ndia Vegetable <b>Pro</b>ducts Limited; it had a minor presence in <a title="Maharashtra" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a> and <a title="Madhya Pradesh" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madhya_Pradesh">Madhya Pradesh</a>.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-1"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wipro#_note-1">[2]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="_ref-2"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wipro#_note-2">[3]</a></sup> In the <a title="1970s" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970s">1970s</a> and <a title="1980s" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980s">1980s</a> it began to expand and made forays into computing. In 1975, Wipro marketed India's first homegrown PC. Wipro was the sole representative for <a title="Sun Microsystems" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Microsystems">Sun Microsystems</a> in India, before the Sun liaison office was set up in India, in the early 1990s.</p><p>In 1995, it received <a title="ISO 9001" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_9001">ISO 9001</a> quality certification. In 1997, it received CMM level 3 certification from the <a class="new" title="Software Engineering Institute of India" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Software_Engineering_Institute_of_India&action=edit">Software Engineering Institute of India</a>. In 1998, it was certified at <a title="CMMi" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CMMi">CMMi</a> level 5. In 2001, it was awarded the <a title="PCMM" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PCMM">PCMM</a> level 5 certification. In the same year, <i><a title="Business Today" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_Today">Business Today</a></i> rated it as India's most valuable company. In June 2001, <i><a title="BusinessWeek" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BusinessWeek">BusinessWeek</a></i> ranked it among the top 100 best performing technology companies globally, and in November 2002, among the top 10 software services companies. As of 2004, it was the 4th largest company in the world in terms of market capitalization in IT services. Wipro is the highest-ranked Indian IT provider by International Association of Outsourcing Professionals.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><a title="Wikipedia:Citing sources" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since May 2007" style="WHITE-SPACE: nowrap">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></a></sup></p><p>Wipro and its success in handling outsourced information technology from US businesses is detailed in <a title="Thomas Friedman" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Friedman">Thomas L. Friedman</a>'s best-selling book <i><a title="The World Is Flat" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_Is_Flat">The World Is Flat</a></i>.</p><p><a id="Time_line" name="Time_line"></a></p><h3><span class="mw-headline">Time line</span></h3><ul><li><a title="1945" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1945">1945</a>: Western India Products Limited is incorporated</li><li><a title="1947" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1947">1947</a>: An oil mill and hydrogenated cooking medium plant set up</li><li><a title="1966" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1966">1966</a>: Azim Premji takes over leadership of Wipro at age 21</li><li><a title="1975" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1975">1975</a>: Wipro Fluid Power is set up to manufacture <a title="Hydraulic" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic">hydraulic</a> and <a title="Pneumatic" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumatic">pneumatic</a> cylinders</li><li><a title="1977" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1977">1977</a>: Company is renamed to Wipro Products Limited</li><li><a title="1980" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980">1980</a>: Information technology services for domestic market started</li><li><a title="1981" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1981">1981</a>: Hardware company is launched</li><li><a title="1982" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1982">1982</a>: Company is renamed to Wipro Limited</li><li><a title="1984" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1984">1984</a>: Software products subsidiary Wipro Systems Ltd. is established</li><li><a title="1985" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1985">1985</a>: Toilet soaps manufacture begins</li><li><a title="1988" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1988">1988</a>: Wipro BioMed is launched. It is a new business unit to market and service bio-analytical and diagnostic instruments</li><li><a title="1989" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989">1989</a>: Joint venture with <a title="GE" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GE">GE</a> for medical systems, Wipro GE Medical Systems Ltd</li><li><a title="1990" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990">1990</a>: Product software business discontinued; software services begin</li><li><a title="1992" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992">1992</a>: Lighting business and finance arm is established</li><li><a title="1994" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994">1994</a>: Merger of subsidiaries Wipro Technologies Ltd. and Wipro Systems Ltd. with Wipro Ltd.</li><li><a title="1998" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1998">1998</a>: Wipro identity is relaunched with rainbow flower and positioning statement, "Applying Thought"</li><li><a title="1999" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999">1999</a>: Brand makeover, with sunflower logo and the tag line "Applying Thought"</li><li><a title="1999" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999">1999</a>: Wipro Net is set up by restructuring Wipro Ltd.'s communication services business to address the Internet market</li><li><a title="2000" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000">2000</a>: Wipro Ltd.'s <a class="new" title="American depositary receipt" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American_depositary_receipt&action=edit">American depositary receipts</a> are listed on <a title="New York Stock Exchange" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Stock_Exchange">New York Stock Exchange</a></li><li><a title="2000" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000">2000</a>: <a title="Six Sigma" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six_Sigma">Six Sigma</a> initiative begun</li><li><a title="2001" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001">2001</a>: Wipro receives a $70 million SI order, the largest ever till overtaken by TCS</li><li><a title="2002" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002">2002</a>: Acquires <a title="Raman Roy" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raman_Roy">Raman Roy</a>'s Spectramind for US$ 175 million to get into <a title="Business Process Outsourcing" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_Process_Outsourcing">BPO</a> industry</li><li><a title="2005" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005">2005</a>: Becomes a $2 billion company</li><li><a title="2006" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006">2006</a>: Becomes the world's largest <a title="R&D" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R&D">R&D</a> service provider<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><a title="Wikipedia:Citing sources" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since February 2007" style="WHITE-SPACE: nowrap">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></a></sup>.</li><li><a title="2006" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006">2006</a>: Acquires Saraware, a wireless R&D service provider from <a title="Finland" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland">Finland</a></li><li><a title="2006" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006">2006</a>: Acquires Quantehc, a mechanical engineering design provider</li><li><a title="2006" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006">2006</a>: Joint venture company WMNetServ with <a title="Motorola" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola">Motorola</a></li><li><a title="2006" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006">2006</a>: Net profit for July, August and September rises 48% to $152m (£81m)</li><li><a title="2007" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007">2007</a>: Revenues reach $3.5billion<sup class="reference" id="_ref-3"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wipro#_note-3">[4]</a></sup></li><li><a title="2007" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007">2007</a>: Becomes SOX Compliant.</li><li><a title="2007" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007">2007</a>: Wipro-Biomed Divsion sold to Ranbaxy Fine Chemicals <a class="external autonumber" title="http://www.business-standard.com/common/storypage.php?autono=" href="http://www.business-standard.com/common/storypage.php?autono=287954&leftnm=1&subLeft=0&chkFlg=" rel="nofollow" chkflg="" leftnm="1&subLeft=">[1]</a></li><li><a title="2007" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007">2007</a>: Wipro opens development cente</li></ul>WIPROकविताhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00210732358968428325noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6041784366759394807.post-25759434176207312902007-07-16T09:20:00.000-07:002007-07-19T02:43:59.663-07:00<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi3ij0_NakSG0EvPCgG5VD7oAEqLFM47_VkUn5StnM72q2fmSHvmFF5cDoapPaPSLFxwSjCgSTR5HyP1tmGUkqlGXG3ba313O2uT5XOF7BEhFyJ4m2qToucX1apQ_mXGUTk2UUE1se2IFWG/s1600-h/100px-Tata-logo.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5087833991969269378" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; WIDTH: 175px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 152px; TEXT-ALIGN: center" height="120" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi3ij0_NakSG0EvPCgG5VD7oAEqLFM47_VkUn5StnM72q2fmSHvmFF5cDoapPaPSLFxwSjCgSTR5HyP1tmGUkqlGXG3ba313O2uT5XOF7BEhFyJ4m2qToucX1apQ_mXGUTk2UUE1se2IFWG/s400/100px-Tata-logo.gif" width="175" border="0" /></a> <div><br /><strong>Tata Group<br /></strong><a class="image" title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Tata-logo.gif"></a><br /><strong>Type<br />Private Conglomerat (BSE)<br />Founded<br />in 1868 by Jamshedji Tata<br />Headquarters<br /></strong><a class="image" title="Flag of India" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Flag_of_India.svg"></a><strong>Mumba, Maharastra, </strong><a title="India" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"><strong>India</strong></a><br /><strong>Key people<br /></strong><a class="image" title="Flag of India" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Flag_of_India.svg"></a><strong>Ratan Tata Chairman<br />Industry<br />EngineeringMaterialsInformation technologyCommunicationAutomotiveChemicalsEnergy<br />Products<br />SteelAutomobilesTelecommunicationsSoftwareHotelsConsumer goods<br />Revenue<br />USD 21.9 billion (Fy2005)(</strong><a class="image" title="image:green up.png" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Green_up.png"></a><strong>3.2%)<br />Employees<br />246,000 (2004)<br />Website<br /></strong><a href="http://www.tata.com/"><strong>www.tata.com</strong></a></div><div></div><div></div><div><br />The Tata Group is India's largest conglomerate, with revenues in 2005-06 of Rs. 967,229 million (US $21.9 billions),he equivalent of about 2.8% of india's GDP, and a market capitalisation of US $57.6 billion now (only 28 of the 96 Tata Group companies are publicly listed). The Tata Group has operations in more than 40 countries across six continents and its companies export products and services to 140 nations. The group takes the name of its founder, Jamshedji Tata, a member of whose family has almost invariably been the chairman of the group. The current chairman of the Tata group is RatanTata, who took over from J. R. D. Tata in 1991. The company is currently in its fifth generation of family stewardship. <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Group#_note-0">[1]</a><br />The Tata Group comprises 96 companies in seven business sectors. 65.8% of the ownership of Tata Group is held by the charitable trust of Tata. </div><br /><div><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">Contents<br /></span><span style="color:#ff6666;">1 History</span><span style="color:#ff6666;"><br /></span><span style="color:#ff6666;">2 Business and values</span><span style="color:#ff6666;"><br /></span><span style="color:#ff6666;">3 Environmental Damage</span><span style="color:#ff6666;"><br /></span><span style="color:#ff6666;">4 Engineering</span><span style="color:#ff6666;"><br /></span><span style="color:#ff6666;">5 Materials</span><span style="color:#ff6666;"><br /></span><span style="color:#ff6666;">6 Energy</span><span style="color:#ff6666;"><br /></span><span style="color:#ff6666;">7 Chemicals</span><span style="color:#ff6666;"><br /></span><span style="color:#ff6666;">8 Services</span><span style="color:#ff6666;"><br /></span><span style="color:#ff6666;">9 Consumer Products</span><span style="color:#ff6666;"><br /></span><span style="color:#ff6666;">10 Information systems and communications</span><span style="color:#ff6666;"><br /></span><span style="color:#ff6666;">11 The Tata logo</span><span style="color:#ff6666;"><br /></span><span style="color:#ff6666;">12 Educational institutes opened by Tata Group</span><span style="color:#ff6666;"><br /></span><br /></div><blockquote></blockquote><span style="font-size:100%;"></span><div><br /><span style="color:#ff6666;">History<br /></span>Jamshedji Tata came from a business family and made his fortune from cloth mills in the interior of Maharashtra. He was well travelled and went in for modern industry for India. He constructed a hotel in Bombay, the Taj Mahal Hotel, in 1903. It was the first large hotel in India, and it was rumoured to have been set up because established hotels of the time were owned by Europeans and did not allow locals. The Indian Hotels Company is a Tata group company that runs the Taj brand of hotels.<br /><a title="Tata Steel" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Steel">TISCO</a>, now Tata Steel was established in 1907 to set up India's first iron and steel plant in <a title="Jamshedpur" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamshedpur">Jamshedpur</a> (Named after Tata's founder, Jamshedji Tata) which is often called Tatanagar for the company's significant presence. The plant started production in 1912. It produces steel at one of the lowest costs in the world, assisted by the Group's ownership of its own raw materials (<a title="Coal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal">coal</a> and <a title="Iron" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron">iron</a>), which means that its cost base is far lower than many rival steel producers. In 1910, Tata Hydro-Electric Power Supply Company was set up. In 1917, the Group entered the consumer goods industry with the <a class="new" title="Tata Oil Mill" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tata_Oil_Mill&action=edit">Tata Oil Mill</a> Company being established to make soaps, detergents and cooking oils. In 1932, <a title="Tata Airlines" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Airlines">Tata Airlines</a>, now Air India, was established. In 1939, <a title="Tata Chemicals" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Chemicals">Tata Chemicals</a> was established. <a title="TELCO" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TELCO">TELCO</a>, now Tata Motors, was established in 1945 to manufacture locomotive and engineering products.<br />On <a title="January 30" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_30">January 30</a>, <a title="2007" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007">2007</a>, <a title="Tata Steel" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Steel">Tata Steel</a>, part of <a title="India" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India">India</a>'s Tata Group, offered to purchase 100% stake in the Corus Group at 608 p. per share in an all cash deal, cumulatively valued at <a title="US Dollars" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Dollars">USD</a> 12.04 Billion. This deal was also the biggest acquisition by an Indian company.<br />Tata surprised the <a title="Credit default swap" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_default_swap">credit default swap</a> segment of the <a title="Derivative market" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derivative_market">derivative markets</a> by deciding to raise $6.17 billion of debt for the deal through a new subsidiary of Corus called "Tata Steel UK", rather than by raising the debt itself. Tata's <a title="Security (finance)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_(finance)">security</a> <a title="Credit rating" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_rating">credit rating</a> is <a title="Investment grade" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investment_grade">investment grade</a>, whereas the new subsidiary may not be. The higher risk associated with raising debt through a subsidiary with a lower credit rating prompted <a title="Fitch Ratings" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitch_Ratings">Fitch Ratings</a> to downgrade its rating of the credit swap risks in the takeover to "negative". Fitch also stated that Corus' responsibility for the debt may lead to Corus' own unsecured debt rating being downgraded.<br /><a id="Business_and_values" name="Business_and_values"></a><br /><span style="color:#ff6666;">Business and values</span><br />Tata Group's aim is to improve the quality of life of the communities it serves. The Tata family of companies shares a set of five core values: integrity, understanding, excellence, unity and responsibility. Tata Group has played a pioneering role in a variety of fields after <a title="India" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India">India</a>'s independence. It is widely respected for the initiatives it has taken in different fields for the upliftment of the country. Its contribution to <a title="India" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India">India</a>'s <a title="Education" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education">education</a>, <a title="Science" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science">science</a> and <a title="Technology" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology">technology</a> is widely documented and appreciated. In fact many of the renowned public sector companies in India and leading research organisations trace their history to Tata, for example Indian Institute of Science (<a title="IISc" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IISc">IISc</a>), Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (<a title="TIFR" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TIFR">TIFR</a>), Tata Institute Of Social Sciences(TISS), TERI (Tata Energy Research Institute), <a title="Air India" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_India">Air India</a> (Tata Airlines)<br /><a id="Environmental_Damage" name="Environmental_Damage"></a><br /><span style="color:#ff6666;">Environmental Damage</span><br />On 12 July 2007 The Independent reported that Tata Chemicals plans to build a soda ash plant on the shores of <a title="Lake Natron" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Natron">Lake Natron</a>, Tanzania. Such a development would destroy one of the few breeding grounds of the lesser flamingo. Chris Magin of the <a title="RSPB" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RSPB">RSPB</a> said:<br />"The chances of lesser flamingos continuing to breed at Lake Natron in the face of such mayhem are next to zero. This development will leave lesser flamingos in east Africa facing extinction and should be stopped in its tracks and sunk in water so deep it can never be revived."<br /><a id="Engineering" name="Engineering"></a><br /><span style="font-size:180%;color:#ff6666;">Engineering<br /></span>TAL Manufacturing Solutions<br />Tata Autocomp Systems Ltd (TACO) is one of the newest addition to Tata Group of Industries. It is one of the fastest growing auto-components companies. TACO has established joint ventures with a number of world renowned auto-component companies.</div><div></div><div><br /><strong><span style="font-size:180%;color:#ff6666;"><em>Tata Motors</em></span></strong></div><div>Contents</div><div><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Motors#Background">1 Background</a><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Motors#Time_line_and_milestones">2 Time line and milestones</a><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Motors#Global_Competition">3 Global Competition</a><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Motors#Present_Global_Challenge">4 Present Global Challenge</a><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Motors#Future_Challenges">5 Future Challenges</a><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Motors#Products">6 Products</a><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Motors#Passenger_cars_and_utility_vehicles">6.1 Passenger cars and utility vehicles</a><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Motors#Concept_vehicles">6.2 Concept vehicles</a><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Motors#Commercial_vehicles">6.3 Commercial vehicles</a><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Motors#Military_vehicles">6.4 Military vehicles</a><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Motors#Tata_Motors_Subsidiaries">7 Tata Motors Subsidiaries</a><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Motors#Controversies">8 Controversies</a> </div><div><strong><span style="font-size:180%;"> Background</span></strong><br /></div><div>Tata indica<br />Tata Motors Limited, formerly known as TELCO (TATA Engineering and Locomotive Company), is <a title="India" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India">India</a>'s largest passenger <a title="Automobile" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile">automobile</a> and <a title="Commercial vehicle" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_vehicle">commercial vehicle</a> manufacturing company. It is also the world's 5th largest commercial vehicle manufacturer. It is part of the <a title="Tata Group" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Group">Tata Group</a>. Tata Motors is widely credited for putting India on the automotive map by designing and developing its own range of cars. Tata Motors date back to 1945 when they started making Trains. Tata Motors was first listed on the <a title="New York Stock Exchange" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Stock_Exchange">NYSE</a> in <a title="2004" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004">2004</a>. Tata Motors had created the wealth Rs 320bn during 2001-2006 and stood among top 10 wealth creators in India. It has its manufacturing base in <a title="Jamshedpur" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamshedpur">Jamshedpur</a>, <a title="Lucknow" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucknow">Lucknow</a>, <a title="Pune" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pune">Pune</a> and soon one more plant is going to established at <a title="Singur" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singur">Singur</a>. In 2004 it also bought <a title="Daewoo" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daewoo">Daewoo</a>'s <a title="Truck" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truck">truck</a> manufacturing unit in <a title="South Korea" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Korea">South Korea</a>. In March 2005, it acquired a 21% stake in <a class="new" title="Hispano Carrocera" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hispano_Carrocera&action=edit">Hispano Carrocera</a> SA, giving it controlling rights in the company. Tata Motors and the Fiat group have signed a new memorandum of understanding (MoU) to establish a 50:50 joint venture to manufacture passenger vehicles, engines and transmission systems for both domestic and export markets<br />Tata Motors is a company of the Tata and Sons Group, founded by <a title="Jamshetji Tata" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamshetji_Tata">Jamshetji Tata</a>. It is currently headed by <a title="Ratan Tata" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratan_Tata">Ratan Tata</a>.<br />The company has the workforce of 22001 employees working in its three plants and other regional and zonal offices across the country.<br />Tata Motors' range of passenger cars is still not comprehensive by international standards. In commercial vehicles, Tata Motors commands an imposing 65% market share in the domestic heavy commercial market. The company is trying to modernise its range of commercial vehicles. Tata Motors hived off its vehicle finance business into a separate subsidiary, TML Financial Services (TMLFS), in September 2006.<br />The company plans to build a car that will cost just under Rs 1,00,000 considering that 2 wheelers in India cost Rs 50,000/-.<br /><a id="Time_line_and_milestones" name="Time_line_and_milestones"></a><br /><strong> Time line and milestones</strong><br />1977-1986 Tata Motors is the largest commercial vehicle maker in India. World over it is the world's fifth largest medium and heavy commercial vehicle manufacturer. It started its journey in 1977 with the manufacturing of first commercial vehicle in Pune. It took five years for the company to begin the commercial production of heavy commercial Vehicles. Considering the road infrastructure of the country the company which does not support the heavy vehicles the company adopted a route for light commercial vehicles (LCV). It came out with its first LCV, Tata 407, in 1986.<br />1987-1996 Tatamobile introduced in 1989. Post liberalization, in order to expand rapidly, the company adopted the route to joint ventures. In 1993 it signed with Cummins Engine Co., Inc., for the manufacture of high horsepower and emission friendly diesel engines. It was an effort made to reduce the pollution in the existing Tata engines and to produce more environmentally friendly engines. Furthering the trail of JVs it signed a joint venture agreement with Tata Holset Ltd., UK, for manufacturing turbochargers to be used on Cummins engines.<br />1997-2006 In 2000, it launched CNG buses and also filled the product line gap through the introduction of the 1109 vehicle which is an intermediate commercial vehicle and is useful for medium tonnage loads. Post 2000, the company introduced a variety of new models. It introduced the Ex- series vehicles with high tonnage capacity and high pick up and also came out with the entirely new LCV (207 DI) with direct ignition technology to cater to the customers' requiring one and same vehicle for commercial as well as personal use.<br />Tata – Daewoo Merger: In 2004, it acquired the Daewoo Commercial Vehicle Company of Korea. </div><div> </div><div><strong><em>The reasons behind the acquisition were</em>:<br /></strong>Company’s global plans to reduce domestic exposure The domestic CV market is highly cyclical in nature and prone to fluctuations in the domestic economy. Tata Motors has a high domestic exposure of ~94% in the MHCV segment and ~84% in the LCV segment. Since the domestic CV sales of the company are at the mercy of the structural economic factors, it is increasingly looking at the international markets. The company plans to diversify into various markets across the world in both MHCV as well as LCV segments.<br />To expand the product portfolio Tata Motors recently introduced the 25MT GVW Tata Novus from Daewoo’s (South Korea) (TDCV) platform. Tata plans to leverage on the strong presence of TDCV in the heavy-tonnage range and introduce products in India at an appropriate time. This was mainly to cater to the international market and also to cater to the domestic market where a major improvement in the Road infrastructure was done through the National Highway Development Project<br />On its journey to make an international foot print, it continued its expansion through the introduction of new products into the market range of buses (Starbus & Globus).<br />JV with Hispano Carrocera: In 2005, sensing the huge opportunity in the fully built bus segment, Tata Motors acquired 21% stake in Hispano Carrocera SA, Spanish bus manufacturing company and introduced its high-end inter-city buses in the country. Tata Motors has also formed a 51:49 JV with Marcopolo, a Brazil-based global leader in bus body building. This JV is to manufacture and assemble fully-built buses and coaches targeted at developing mass rapid transportation systems. The JV will absorb technology and expertise in chassis and aggregates from Tata Motors, and expertise and Marcopolo will provide know-how in processes and systems for bodybuilding and bus body design.<br />Tata Ace: The latest hit of Tata Motors is its mini truck Ace. Ace, India's first indigenously developed sub-one ton mini-truck, was launched in May 2005. It was an instant hit. Analysts opined that Ace had changed the dynamics of the LCV market in India by creating a new market segment termed the SCV segment. Ace rapidly emerged as the first choice for transporters and single truck owners for city and rural transport. By October 2005, since the launch of Ace, LCV sales of Tata Motors had grown by 36.6 percent to 28,537 units due to the rising demand for Ace.<br />In 2005, Tata Motors became the only major engine manufacturer in the world (aside from a <a title="Briggs & Stratton" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Briggs_%26_Stratton">Briggs & Stratton</a> emissions test) to express any formal interest in the turbulence-boosting <a title="Cylinder head" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_head">cylinder head</a> grooves invented by <a class="new" title="Somender Singh" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Somender_Singh&action=edit">Somender Singh</a> (<a title="Mysore" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mysore">Mysore</a>).<br />2007 onwards: Tata Motors, through its JV with Fiat, is likely to gain access to Fiat’s diesel technology and to the latter’s strong overseas distribution network for its passenger cars. Tata Motors is looking to extend this relationship to other segments like pick-ups and MHCVs. The company also plans to expand its global footprint with the launch of ‘Global Truck’ and ‘Global Pick-up’ in domestic and international markets by 2007-08. Tata Motors plans to launch the new pick-up in India, Southeast Asia, Europe, South Africa, Turkey and Saudi Arabia. The launch of the global truck will mark the entry of the company into developed markets like Europe and the USA. The project was initially a collaboration between Tata Motors and its subsidiary Tata Daewoo Commercial Vehicles, but later Tata Motors decided to work with Iveco as Daewoo’s design was not in sync with the needs of sophisticated European customers. The company has formed a JV with Thailand’s Thonburi,( Exhibit-1) an independent auto assembler, in which Tata Motors will hold a 70% stake. The JV will set up a plant with capacity to manufacture pick-ups a year and will sell them in Thailand, the second largest pick-up market in the world, and in other regional markets. The JV product is likely to be a part of Tata Motors’ ‘Global pick-up’ plans.<br />Auto policy of Government of India envisions to establish a globally competitive automotive industry in India and to double its contribution to the economy by 2010. GOI policy has rightly recognized the need for modernizing of vehicles to arrest degradation of air quality. The terminal life policy for commercial vehicles and move toward international taxing policies linked to age of vehicles, are steps in the right direction which will lead to increased sales for TATA motors Commercial vehicle division.<br />Effect of Government Policy on TATA Motors CV Division Commercial Vehicles segment sector has been at the forefront of the strong showing by the automotive industry over the past few years. Following factors have led to growth in sales:<br />The cut in excise duty that enabled manufacturers like TATA Motors to reduce prices<br />The attractive financing offers and freebies enabled by low interest rate policies by Government<br />the need to transport higher volumes of agricultural and industrial goods<br />Low interest rates<br />Impact of Indian Budget on Auto Sector The auto industry an engine of growth in India in the past five years has not received direct mention. The mildly positive news concerning automobiles is the cut in tariff on petroleum and diesel from 8 per cent to 6 per cent which has made commercial vehicles more competitive in the export market The government has announced indirect benefits in education and training of the workforce and extension of the benefit of 150 per cent weighted deduction on in-house R&D by another five years. Another indirect benefit to the auto is in provision for the national highway development program. Thus budget will have mild positive effect on commercial vehicles division at TATA Motors, although Government could have done lot more to increase competitiveness of CVD like the industry had expected excise duty on larger passenger vehicles to be cut to 16 per cent from 24 per cent and customs duty on auto parts would be cut to 5 per cent from 12.5 per cent.<br />Union Budget Highlights on Auto Sector • Setting up of Investment Commission to invite domestic and foreign business to invest in India • Setting up of National Manufacturing Competitiveness Council to provide sector/industry specific policy initiatives to enhance competitiveness. • Announcement of Introduction of VAT from 1st April 2005. A Technical Experts Committee to assists States in VAT implementation. • 2% education cess levied on Income Tax, Corporate Tax, Customs Duty, Excise Duty, Service Tax. • Rs 10,135 crore additional Plan expenditure • No change in rate of interest<br />Direct Taxes • Requirement of capacity expansion reduced from 25% to 10% to get benefit of additional depreciation of 15% u/s 32 (1) (iia) for capital investment • Benefit of 150% deduction under section 35(2ab) of Income Tax Act extended to the Automobile Industry.<br />Indirect Taxes Customs • Reduction in Customs Duty on Alloy Steel, Copper, Lead & Zinc from 20% to 15%. Duty on all primary, Semi- finished and finished form of Iron & Steel like Ingots & Billets, Sponge Iron, Hot Rolled & Cold Rolled bars/ Rods /Coils of non-alloy steel reduced from 15% to 10%. • Customs Duty on catalysts (3815) has been reduced from 20% to 15% Excise Duty • Increase in Excise duty on Steel from 8% to 12% • Tractors exempted from Excise Duty. Parts captively used in the manufacture of tractors have been exempted from Excise Duty.<br />New auto policy considered by GOI India last announced an automobile policy in December 1997. The policy required majority-owned subsidiaries of foreign car firms to invest at least $50 million in equity if they wished to set up manufacturing projects in India. It also forced them to take on export obligations to fund their auto part imports and required them to submit to a schedule for increasing the share of locally made parts in their cars. Mere car assembling operations were not welcomed.<br />An Indian cabinet panel will soon consider a new automobile policy that aims to set fresh investment guidelines for foreign firms wishing to manufacture vehicles in the country. Investments in making auto parts by a foreign vehicle maker will also be considered a part of the minimum foreign investment made by it in an auto-making subsidiary in India. The move is aimed at helping India emerge as a hub for global manufacturing and sourcing for auto parts. The policy sets an export target of $1 billion by 2005 and $2.7 billion by 2010. The policies adopted by Government will increase competition in domestic market, motivate many foreign CV manufactures to set up shops in India, whom will make India as a production hub and export to nearest market. Thus TATA Motors CV will have to face tough competition in near future, which might affect its growth negatively.<br />Tata is developing a car it aims to sell in 2008 for about $2,500 USD, which would be considered the cheapest vehicle ever made in real terms.<br /><a id="Global_Competition" name="Global_Competition"></a><br /><span style="font-size:180%;"><strong> Global Competition<br /></strong></span>Tata Motors have some distinct advantages in comparison to other MNC competitors. There is definite cost advantage as labor cost is 8-9 per cent of sales as against 30-35 per cent of sales in developed economies. Tata motors have extensive backward and forward linkages and it is strongly interwoven with machine tools and metals sectors. India is an excellent source for IT based engineering solution for products & process Integration. There are strong supporting industries i.e. auto component industry has world class capabilities. There is huge demand in domestic markets due to infrastructure developments and Tata Motors is able to leverage its knowledge of Indian market. There are favorable Government polices and regulations to boost the auto industry i.e. Incentive for R&D.<br /><a id="Present_Global_Challenge" name="Present_Global_Challenge"></a><br /><strong><span style="font-size:180%;">Present Global Challenge</span></strong><br />Volvo, a leading manufacturer of trucks, buses, cars, construction equipment, and aero engines, has entered in India in 1998. Its main focus is in the area of fully built buses. In India, it has focused on providing economical transport solutions in consonance with its values of safety, quality, and environmental care. Its competitive advantage is its high technology which makes the vehicle a very comfortable option to travel through. Its trucks are reputed for their performance and economy and are the flag bearers in their production activities in India. It is still operating in the niche market of high end buses where the TATA compete through its Spanish buses.<br /><a id="Future_Challenges" name="Future_Challenges"></a><br /><span style="font-size:180%;"><strong>Future Challenges</strong><br /></span>M<strong>ahindra and Mahindra</strong>: JV with ITEC, North American leader in heavy trucks. M&M has formed a 51:49 JV called Mahindra International with ITEC, USA, (parent NAVISTAR), to manufacture commercial vehicles and to bolster its position in the CV business. ITEC is the leader in medium and heavy trucks and buses in North America, and is the world's largest manufacturer of medium-duty diesel engines. Mahindra International aims to have a presence across the CV market (6-35 tonnes GVW) with variants of passenger transport, cargo and specialised load applications and is likely to start producing medium/heavy commercial vehicles from FY09.<br />Force Motors: JV with MAN for manufacturing high-tonnage vehicles Force Motors has paired up with MAN in a 70:30 JV to manufacture high-tonnage and specialty vehicles, such as long-haul trucks, tippers, tractor trailers and multi-axle vehicles in the 16-32 tonne range at its Pithampur plant, with an initial capacity of 24,000 units per annum and at an investment of Rs7bn. The JV plans to sell nearly half of its production in the domestic market, while the rest is to be exported to the Middle East, Turkey, Russia, Asia and Africa. Further, the two companies have formed another JV to manufacture buses in India from end-2007.<br />Ashok Leyland: Acquisition of Czech Republic-based Avia Ashok Leyland (ALL) recently acquired the truck unit of Czech Republic-based Avia for US$35m. Avia manufactures 6-9 tonne LCVs and has a capacity of 20,000 units per annum. The acquisition has given ALL direct access to an entire range of Avia trucks, Avia’s press shop with dies and tools, welding lines, state-of-the-art paint shop and R&D facilities. ALL has also entered into technology agreements with Hino Motors of Japan and ZF of Germany to complement its in-house R&D efforts and developing complementary components and aggregates.<br /><a id="Products" name="Products"></a><br /><span style="font-size:180%;"><strong>Products</strong></span><br /><a id="Passenger_cars_and_utility_vehicles" name="Passenger_cars_and_utility_vehicles"></a><br /><strong> Passenger cars and utility vehicles</strong><br /><a class="internal" title="Tata concept car" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Xover.jpg"></a><br /><a class="internal" title="Enlarge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Xover.jpg"></a>Tata concept car<br /><a title="Tata Sierra" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Sierra">Tata Sierra</a><br /><a title="Tata Estate" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Estate">Tata Estate</a><br /><a title="Tata Sumo" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Sumo">Tata Sumo/Spacio</a><br /><a title="Tata Safari" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Safari">Tata Safari</a><br /><a title="Tata Indica" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Indica">Tata Indica</a><br /><a title="Tata Indigo" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Indigo">Tata Indigo</a><br /><a title="Tata Indigo" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Indigo">Tata Indigo Marina</a><br /><a id="Concept_vehicles" name="Concept_vehicles"></a><br /><strong>Concept vehicles</strong><br />2000 <a class="new" title="Tata Aria" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tata_Aria&action=edit">Aria Roadster</a><br />2001 <a class="new" title="Tata Aria" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tata_Aria&action=edit">Aria Coupe</a><br />2002 <a class="new" title="Tata Indiva" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tata_Indiva&action=edit">Tata Indiva</a><br />2004 <a title="Tata Indigo" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Indigo">Tata Indigo Advent</a><br />2005 <a title="Tata Xover" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Xover">Tata Xover</a><br />2006 <a class="new" title="Tata Cliffrider" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tata_Cliffrider&action=edit">Tata Cliffrider</a><br />2007 <a title="Tata Elegante" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Elegante">Tata Elegante</a><br /><a id="Commercial_vehicles" name="Commercial_vehicles"></a><br /><strong>Commercial vehicles</strong><br /><a class="internal" title="Tata heavy trucks in Ladakh, India" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:43265922_535b0fe937_o.jpg"></a><br /><a class="internal" title="Enlarge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:43265922_535b0fe937_o.jpg"></a>Tata heavy trucks in <a title="Ladakh" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladakh">Ladakh</a>, India<br /><a title="Tata Ace" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Ace">Tata Ace</a><br /><a title="Tata TL" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_TL">Tata TL/Telcoline/207 DI</a> Pickup Truck<br />Tata 407<br />Tata 709 E<br />Tata 1109 (Intermediate truck)<br /><a title="Tata 1510/1512" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_1510/1512">Tata 1510/1512</a> (Medium bus)<br />Tata 1610/1616 (Heavy bus)<br />Tata 1613/1615 (Medium truck)<br />Tata 2515/2516 (Medium truck)<br />Tata 3015 (Heavy truck)<br />Tata 3516 (Heavy truck)<br /><a title="Tata Novus" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Novus">Tata Novus</a> (Heavy truck designed by <a title="Tata Daewoo Commercial Vehicle" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Daewoo_Commercial_Vehicle">Tata Daewoo</a>)<br /><a id="Military_vehicles" name="Military_vehicles"></a><br /><strong>Military vehicles</strong><br />Tata 407 Troop Carrier, available in hard top, soft top, 4x4, and 4x2 versions<br />Tata LPTA 713 TC (4x4)<br />Tata LPT 709 E<br />Tata SD 1015 TC (4x4)<br />Tata LPTA 1615 TC (4x4)<br />Tata LPTA 1621 TC (6x6)<br />Tata LPTA 1615 TC (4x2)<br /><a id="Tata_Motors_Subsidiaries" name="Tata_Motors_Subsidiaries"></a><br /><strong><span style="font-size:180%;">Tata Motors Subsidiaries</span></strong><br />Telco Construction Equipmentis a joint venture between Tata Motors and Hitachi, which focuses on excavators and other construction equipment.<br />HV Transmission (HVTL) and HV Axles (HVAL): HVAL and HVTL are 100% subsidiary companies of Tata Motors engaged in the business of manufacture of gear boxes and axles for heavy and medium commercial vehicles, with production facilities and infrastructure based at Jamshedpur. The combined revenue of the two companies rose 38.7% yoy for 9MFY07 while the combined PAT rose 50.9%. Tata Motors plans a capex of Rs2bn each for HVAL & HVTL and plans to raise funds for the same, most probably by way of a strategic sale to a technical collaborator. The strategic sale of either HVAL or HVTL or both is likely to be completed in the next one or two quarters.</div><div><br />Tata Technologies Limited (TTL): TTL provides Engineering and Design (E&D) solutions to the Automotive Industry. Tata Motors holds 86.91% of TTL’s share capital. TTL is based in Pune (Hinjawadi) and operates in the US and Europe through its wholly owned subsidiaries in Detroit and London respectively. It also has a presence in Thailand. Tata Technologies is a software service provider in the IT services and BPO space. Its global client list includes Ford, General Motors, Toyota and Honda, to name a few. It bought over the British engineering and design services company, Incat International Plc for Rs4b in August 2005. Incat specializes in engineering & design services and product lifecycle management in the international automotive, aerospace and engineering markets. With this acquisition, Tata Motors will have closer proximity to its global customers and be able to provide a wider range of services.<br />Tata Daewoo CV Ltd(TDCV): TDCV is a 100% subsidiary of the Tata Motors based in South Korea, which was acquired in March 2004. TDCV is in the business of manufacture and sale of heavy commercial vehicles.Tata Daewoo is Tata Motors’ 100% subsidiary in Korea, with a market share of 30%.Tata Motors will use the Daewoo technology to introduce higher tonnage trucks in the Indian market and use Tata Daewoo for exports globally. In line with this strategy, it has already introduced the Novus, a high-end tipper developed by Tata Daewoo for the Indian market.<br /><a id="Controversies" name="Controversies"></a><br /><strong> Controversies</strong><br />Farmers are agitating against the land acquired by the firm in Singur for its ambitious Rs 1,00,000 car project. The protest is being lead by <a title="Mamta Banerjee" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamta_Banerjee">Mamta Banerjee</a> of the <a title="Trinamool Congress" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinamool_Congress">Trinamool Congress</a>. Farmers are protesting that the land is fertile land and the government acquired the land without their consent.</div><div> </div><div></div><div>(formerly Tata Engineering and Locomotives Ltd (TELCO)) is a company of Tata group of companies which produces automobiles for the Indian Market. Its products range for goods and passenger <a title="Transport" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport">transport</a>. Seven out of ten medium and heavy commercial vehicles in India bear the Tata mark, widely trusted in India. The <a title="Tata Indica" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Indica">Indica</a> V2 – India's only fully indigenously designed and manufactured passenger car – has been a great commercial success. </div><div></div><div></div><div><br />Contents[<a class="internal" id="togglelink" href="javascript:toggleToc()">hide</a>]<br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Motors#Background">1 Background</a><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Motors#Time_line_and_milestones">2 Time line and milestones</a><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Motors#Global_Competition">3 Global Competition</a><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Motors#Present_Global_Challenge">4 Present Global Challenge</a><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Motors#Future_Challenges">5 Future Challenges</a><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Motors#Products">6 Products</a><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Motors#Passenger_cars_and_utility_vehicles">6.1 Passenger cars and utility vehicles</a><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Motors#Concept_vehicles">6.2 Concept vehicles</a><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Motors#Commercial_vehicles">6.3 Commercial vehicles</a><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Motors#Military_vehicles">6.4 Military vehicles</a><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Motors#Tata_Motors_Subsidiaries">7 Tata Motors Subsidiaries</a><br /><br /><br /><a id="Background" name="Background"></a><br /><strong><em><span style="font-size:180%;">Background<br /></span></em></strong><a class="new" title="Image:Tata indica.jpg" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Tata_indica.jpg">Image:Tata indica.jpg</a><br />Tata indica<br />Tata Motors Limited, formerly known as TELCO (TATA Engineering and Locomotive Company), is <a title="India" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India">India</a>'s largest passenger <a title="Automobile" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile">automobile</a> and <a title="Commercial vehicle" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_vehicle">commercial vehicle</a> manufacturing company. It is also the world's 5th largest commercial vehicle manufacturer. It is part of the <a title="Tata Group" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Group">Tata Group</a>. Tata Motors is widely credited for putting India on the automotive map by designing and developing its own range of cars. Tata Motors date back to 1945 when they started making Trains. Tata Motors was first listed on the <a title="New York Stock Exchange" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Stock_Exchange">NYSE</a> in <a title="2004" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004">2004</a>. Tata Motors had created the wealth Rs 320bn during 2001-2006 and stood among top 10 wealth creators in India. It has its manufacturing base in <a title="Jamshedpur" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamshedpur">Jamshedpur</a>, <a title="Lucknow" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucknow">Lucknow</a>, <a title="Pune" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pune">Pune</a> and soon one more plant is going to established at <a title="Singur" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singur">Singur</a>. In 2004 it also bought <a title="Daewoo" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daewoo">Daewoo</a>'s <a title="Truck" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truck">truck</a> manufacturing unit in <a title="South Korea" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Korea">South Korea</a>. In March 2005, it acquired a 21% stake in <a class="new" title="Hispano Carrocera" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hispano_Carrocera&action=edit">Hispano Carrocera</a> SA, giving it controlling rights in the company. Tata Motors and the Fiat group have signed a new memorandum of understanding (MoU) to establish a 50:50 joint venture to manufacture passenger vehicles, engines and transmission systems for both domestic and export markets<br />Tata Motors is a company of the Tata and Sons Group, founded by <a title="Jamshetji Tata" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamshetji_Tata">Jamshetji Tata</a>. It is currently headed by <a title="Ratan Tata" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratan_Tata">Ratan Tata</a>.<br />The company has the workforce of 22001 employees working in its three plants and other regional and zonal offices across the country.<br />Tata Motors' range of passenger cars is still not comprehensive by international standards. In commercial vehicles, Tata Motors commands an imposing 65% market share in the domestic heavy commercial market. The company is trying to modernise its range of commercial vehicles. Tata Motors hived off its vehicle finance business into a separate subsidiary, TML Financial Services (TMLFS), in September 2006.<br />The company plans to build a car that will cost just under Rs 1,00,000 considering that 2 wheelers in India cost Rs 50,000/-.<br /><a id="Time_line_and_milestones" name="Time_line_and_milestones"></a><br /><strong>Time line and milestones</strong><br />1977-1986 Tata Motors is the largest commercial vehicle maker in India. World over it is the world's fifth largest medium and heavy commercial vehicle manufacturer. It started its journey in 1977 with the manufacturing of first commercial vehicle in Pune. It took five years for the company to begin the commercial production of heavy commercial Vehicles. Considering the road infrastructure of the country the company which does not support the heavy vehicles the company adopted a route for light commercial vehicles (LCV). It came out with its first LCV, Tata 407, in 1986.<br />1987-1996 Tatamobile introduced in 1989. Post liberalization, in order to expand rapidly, the company adopted the route to joint ventures. In 1993 it signed with Cummins Engine Co., Inc., for the manufacture of high horsepower and emission friendly diesel engines. It was an effort made to reduce the pollution in the existing Tata engines and to produce more environmentally friendly engines. Furthering the trail of JVs it signed a joint venture agreement with Tata Holset Ltd., UK, for manufacturing turbochargers to be used on Cummins engines.<br />1997-2006 In 2000, it launched CNG buses and also filled the product line gap through the introduction of the 1109 vehicle which is an intermediate commercial vehicle and is useful for medium tonnage loads. Post 2000, the company introduced a variety of new models. It introduced the Ex- series vehicles with high tonnage capacity and high pick up and also came out with the entirely new LCV (207 DI) with direct ignition technology to cater to the customers' requiring one and same vehicle for commercial as well as personal use.<br />Tata – Daewoo Merger: In 2004, it acquired the Daewoo Commercial Vehicle Company of Korea. </div><div>The reasons behind the acquisition were:<br />Company’s global plans to reduce domestic exposure The domestic CV market is highly cyclical in nature and prone to fluctuations in the domestic economy. Tata Motors has a high domestic exposure of ~94% in the MHCV segment and ~84% in the LCV segment. Since the domestic CV sales of the company are at the mercy of the structural economic factors, it is increasingly looking at the international markets. The company plans to diversify into various markets across the world in both MHCV as well as LCV segments.<br />To expand the product portfolio Tata Motors recently introduced the 25MT GVW Tata Novus from Daewoo’s (South Korea) (TDCV) platform. Tata plans to leverage on the strong presence of TDCV in the heavy-tonnage range and introduce products in India at an appropriate time. This was mainly to cater to the international market and also to cater to the domestic market where a major improvement in the Road infrastructure was done through the National Highway Development Project<br />On its journey to make an international foot print, it continued its expansion through the introduction of new products into the market range of buses (Starbus & Globus).<br />JV with Hispano Carrocera: In 2005, sensing the huge opportunity in the fully built bus segment, Tata Motors acquired 21% stake in Hispano Carrocera SA, Spanish bus manufacturing company and introduced its high-end inter-city buses in the country. Tata Motors has also formed a 51:49 JV with Marcopolo, a Brazil-based global leader in bus body building. This JV is to manufacture and assemble fully-built buses and coaches targeted at developing mass rapid transportation systems. The JV will absorb technology and expertise in chassis and aggregates from Tata Motors, and expertise and Marcopolo will provide know-how in processes and systems for bodybuilding and bus body design.<br />Tata Ace: The latest hit of Tata Motors is its mini truck Ace. Ace, India's first indigenously developed sub-one ton mini-truck, was launched in May 2005. It was an instant hit. Analysts opined that Ace had changed the dynamics of the LCV market in India by creating a new market segment termed the SCV segment. Ace rapidly emerged as the first choice for transporters and single truck owners for city and rural transport. By October 2005, since the launch of Ace, LCV sales of Tata Motors had grown by 36.6 percent to 28,537 units due to the rising demand for Ace.<br />I<strong>n 2005</strong>, Tata Motors became the only major engine manufacturer in the world (aside from a <a title="Briggs & Stratton" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Briggs_&_Stratton">Briggs & Stratton</a> emissions test) to express any formal interest in the turbulence-boosting <a title="Cylinder head" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_head">cylinder head</a> grooves invented by <a class="new" title="Somender Singh" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Somender_Singh&action=edit">Somender Singh</a> (Mysore).<br />2007 onwards: Tata Motors, through its JV with Fiat, is likely to gain access to Fiat’s diesel technology and to the latter’s strong overseas distribution network for its passenger cars. Tata Motors is looking to extend this relationship to other segments like pick-ups and MHCVs. The company also plans to expand its global footprint with the launch of ‘Global Truck’ and ‘Global Pick-up’ in domestic and international markets by 2007-08. Tata Motors plans to launch the new pick-up in India, Southeast Asia, Europe, South Africa, Turkey and Saudi Arabia. The launch of the global truck will mark the entry of the company into developed markets like Europe and the USA. The project was initially a collaboration between Tata Motors and its subsidiary Tata Daewoo Commercial Vehicles, but later Tata Motors decided to work with Iveco as Daewoo’s design was not in sync with the needs of sophisticated European customers. The company has formed a JV with Thailand’s Thonburi,( Exhibit-1) an independent auto assembler, in which Tata Motors will hold a 70% stake. The JV will set up a plant with capacity to manufacture pick-ups a year and will sell them in Thailand, the second largest pick-up market in the world, and in other regional markets. The JV product is likely to be a part of Tata Motors’ ‘Global pick-up’ plans.<br />Auto policy of Government of India envisions to establish a globally competitive automotive industry in India and to double its contribution to the economy by 2010. GOI policy has rightly recognized the need for modernizing of vehicles to arrest degradation of air quality. The terminal life policy for commercial vehicles and move toward international taxing policies linked to age of vehicles, are steps in the right direction which will lead to increased sales for TATA motors Commercial vehicle division.<br />Effect of Government Policy on TATA Motors CV Division Commercial Vehicles segment sector has been at the forefront of the strong showing by the automotive industry over the past few years. </div><div><strong></strong></div><div><strong>Following factors have led to growth in sales:</strong><br />The cut in excise duty that enabled manufacturers like TATA Motors to reduce prices<br />The attractive financing offers and freebies enabled by low interest rate policies by Government<br />the need to transport higher volumes of agricultural and industrial goods<br /><strong>Low interest rates<br /></strong>Impact of Indian Budget on Auto Sector The auto industry an engine of growth in India in the past five years has not received direct mention. The mildly positive news concerning automobiles is the cut in tariff on petroleum and diesel from 8 per cent to 6 per cent which has made commercial vehicles more competitive in the export market The government has announced indirect benefits in education and training of the workforce and extension of the benefit of 150 per cent weighted deduction on in-house R&D by another five years. Another indirect benefit to the auto is in provision for the national highway development program. Thus budget will have mild positive effect on commercial vehicles division at TATA Motors, although Government could have done lot more to increase competitiveness of CVD like the industry had expected excise duty on larger passenger vehicles to be cut to 16 per cent from 24 per cent and customs duty on auto parts would be cut to 5 per cent from 12.5 per cent.<br />Union Budget Highlights on Auto Sector • Setting up of Investment Commission to invite domestic and foreign business to invest in India • Setting up of National Manufacturing Competitiveness Council to provide sector/industry specific policy initiatives to enhance competitiveness. • Announcement of Introduction of VAT from 1st April 2005. A Technical Experts Committee to assists States in VAT implementation. • 2% education cess levied on Income Tax, Corporate Tax, Customs Duty, Excise Duty, Service Tax. • Rs 10,135 crore additional Plan expenditure • No change in rate of interest<br />Direct Taxes • Requirement of capacity expansion reduced from 25% to 10% to get benefit of additional depreciation of 15% u/s 32 (1) (iia) for capital investment • Benefit of 150% deduction under section 35(2ab) of Income Tax Act extended to the Automobile Industry.<br />Indirect Taxes Customs • Reduction in Customs Duty on Alloy Steel, Copper, Lead & Zinc from 20% to 15%. Duty on all primary, Semi- finished and finished form of Iron & Steel like Ingots & Billets, Sponge Iron, Hot Rolled & Cold Rolled bars/ Rods /Coils of non-alloy steel reduced from 15% to 10%. • Customs Duty on catalysts (3815) has been reduced from 20% to 15% Excise Duty • Increase in Excise duty on Steel from 8% to 12% • Tractors exempted from Excise Duty. Parts captively used in the manufacture of tractors have been exempted from Excise Duty.</div><br /><div><br />New auto policy considered by GOI India last announced an automobile policy in December 1997. The policy required majority-owned subsidiaries of foreign car firms to invest at least $50 million in equity if they wished to set up manufacturing projects in India. It also forced them to take on export obligations to fund their auto part imports and required them to submit to a schedule for increasing the share of locally made parts in their cars. Mere car assembling operations were not welcomed.<br />An Indian cabinet panel will soon consider a new automobile policy that aims to set fresh investment guidelines for foreign firms wishing to manufacture vehicles in the country. Investments in making auto parts by a foreign vehicle maker will also be considered a part of the minimum foreign investment made by it in an auto-making subsidiary in India. The move is aimed at helping India emerge as a hub for global manufacturing and sourcing for auto parts. The policy sets an export target of $1 billion by 2005 and $2.7 billion by 2010. The policies adopted by Government will increase competition in domestic market, motivate many foreign CV manufactures to set up shops in India, whom will make India as a production hub and export to nearest market. Thus TATA Motors CV will have to face tough competition in near future, which might affect its growth negatively.<br />Tata is developing a car it aims to sell in 2008 for about $2,500 USD, which would be considered the cheapest vehicle ever made in real terms</div><div><a id="Global_Competition" name="Global_Competition"></a><br /><strong>Global Competition<br /></strong>Tata Motors have some distinct advantages in comparison to other MNC competitors. There is definite cost advantage as labor cost is 8-9 per cent of sales as against 30-35 per cent of sales in developed economies. Tata motors have extensive backward and forward linkages and it is strongly interwoven with machine tools and metals sectors. India is an excellent source for IT based engineering solution for products & process Integration. There are strong supporting industries i.e. auto component industry has world class capabilities. There is huge demand in domestic markets due to infrastructure developments and Tata Motors is able to leverage its knowledge of Indian market. There are favorable Government polices and regulations to boost the auto industry i.e. Incentive for R&D.<br /><a id="Present_Global_Challenge" name="Present_Global_Challenge"></a><br /><strong>Present Global Challenge<br /></strong>Volvo, a leading manufacturer of trucks, buses, cars, construction equipment, and aero engines, has entered in India in 1998. Its main focus is in the area of fully built buses. In India, it has focused on providing economical transport solutions in consonance with its values of safety, quality, and environmental care. Its competitive advantage is its high technology which makes the vehicle a very comfortable option to travel through. Its trucks are reputed for their performance and economy and are the flag bearers in their production activities in India. It is still operating in the niche market of high end buses where the TATA compete through its Spanish buses.<br /><a id="Future_Challenges" name="Future_Challenges"></a><br /><strong>Future Challenges</strong><br /><strong>Mahindra and Mahindra</strong>: JV with ITEC, North American leader in heavy trucks. M&M has formed a 51:49 JV called Mahindra International with ITEC, USA, (parent NAVISTAR), to manufacture commercial vehicles and to bolster its position in the CV business. ITEC is the leader in medium and heavy trucks and buses in North America, and is the world's largest manufacturer of medium-duty diesel engines. Mahindra International aims to have a presence across the CV market (6-35 tonnes GVW) with variants of passenger transport, cargo and specialised load applications and is likely to start producing medium/heavy commercial vehicles from FY09.<br /><strong>Force Motors</strong>: JV with MAN for manufacturing high-tonnage vehicles Force Motors has paired up with MAN in a 70:30 JV to manufacture high-tonnage and specialty vehicles, such as long-haul trucks, tippers, tractor trailers and multi-axle vehicles in the 16-32 tonne range at its Pithampur plant, with an initial capacity of 24,000 units per annum and at an investment of Rs7bn. The JV plans to sell nearly half of its production in the domestic market, while the rest is to be exported to the Middle East, Turkey, Russia, Asia and Africa. Further, the two companies have formed another JV to manufacture buses in India from end-2007.<br />Ashok Leyland: Acquisition of Czech Republic-based Avia Ashok Leyland (ALL) recently acquired the truck unit of Czech Republic-based Avia for US$35m. Avia manufactures 6-9 tonne LCVs and has a capacity of 20,000 units per annum. The acquisition has given ALL direct access to an entire range of Avia trucks, Avia’s press shop with dies and tools, welding lines, state-of-the-art paint shop and R&D facilities. ALL has also entered into technology agreements with Hino Motors of Japan and ZF of Germany to complement its in-house R&D efforts and developing complementary components and aggregates.<br /><a id="Products" name="Products"></a><br /><span style="font-size:180%;"></span><strong><em><span style="font-size:130%;"><span style="font-size:180%;">Products</span><br /></span></em></strong><a id="Passenger_cars_and_utility_vehicles" name="Passenger_cars_and_utility_vehicles"></a><br /><strong>Passenger cars and utility vehicles<br /></strong><a class="internal" title="Tata concept car" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Xover.jpg"></a><br /><a class="internal" title="Enlarge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Xover.jpg"></a>Tata concept car<br />Tata Sierra<br />Tata Estate<br />Tata Sumo/Spacio<br />Tata Safari<br />Tata Indica<br />Tata Indigo<br />Tata Indigo Marina<br /><a id="Concept_vehicles" name="Concept_vehicles"></a><br /><strong>Concept vehicles</strong><br />2000 Aria Roadster<br />2001 Aria Coupe<br />2002 Tata Indiva<br />2004 Tata Indigo Advent<br />2005 Tata Xover<br />2006 Tata Cliffrider<br />2007 Tata Elegante<br /><a id="Commercial_vehicles" name="Commercial_vehicles"></a><br /><strong>Commercial vehicles<br /></strong><a class="internal" title="Tata heavy trucks in Ladakh, India" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:43265922_535b0fe937_o.jpg"></a><br /><a class="internal" title="Enlarge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:43265922_535b0fe937_o.jpg"></a>Tata heavy trucks in Ladakh, India<br />Tata Ace</div><div>Tata TL/Telcoline/207 DI Pickup Truck<br />Tata 407<br />Tata 709 E<br />Tata 1109 (Intermediate truck)<br />Tata 1510/1512 (Medium bus)<br />Tata 1610/1616 (Heavy bus)<br />Tata 1613/1615 (Medium truck)<br />Tata 2515/2516 (Medium truck)<br />Tata 3015 (Heavy truck)<br />Tata 3516 (Heavy truck)<br />Tata Novus (Heavy truck designed by Tata Daewoo)<br /><a id="Military_vehicles" name="Military_vehicles"></a><br /><strong>Military vehicles</strong><br />Tata 407 Troop Carrier, available in hard top, soft top, 4x4, and 4x2 versions<br />Tata LPTA 713 TC (4x4)<br />Tata LPT 709 E<br />Tata SD 1015 TC (4x4)<br />Tata LPTA 1615 TC (4x4)<br />Tata LPTA 1621 TC (6x6)<br />Tata LPTA 1615 TC (4x2)<br /><a id="Tata_Motors_Subsidiaries" name="Tata_Motors_Subsidiaries"></a><br /><strong><span style="font-size:180%;">Tata Motors Subsidiaries<br /></span></strong>Telco Construction Equipment is a joint venture between Tata Motors and <a title="Hitachi" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitachi">Hitachi</a>, which focuses on excavators and other construction equipment.<br /><strong>HV Transmission (HVTL) and HV Axles (HVAL</strong>): HVAL and HVTL are 100% subsidiary companies of Tata Motors engaged in the business of manufacture of gear boxes and axles for heavy and medium commercial vehicles, with production facilities and infrastructure based at Jamshedpur. The combined revenue of the two companies rose 38.7% yoy for 9MFY07 while the combined PAT rose 50.9%. Tata Motors plans a capex of Rs2bn each for HVAL & HVTL and plans to raise funds for the same, most probably by way of a strategic sale to a technical collaborator. The strategic sale of either HVAL or HVTL or both is likely to be completed in the next one or two quarters.</div><div><br /><strong>Tata Technologies Limited (TTL):</strong> TTL provides Engineering and Design (E&D) solutions to the Automotive Industry. Tata Motors holds 86.91% of TTL’s share capital. TTL is based in Pune (Hinjawadi) and operates in the US and Europe through its wholly owned subsidiaries in Detroit and London respectively. It also has a presence in Thailand. Tata Technologies is a software service provider in the IT services and BPO space. Its global client list includes Ford, General Motors, Toyota and Honda, to name a few. It bought over the British engineering and design services company, Incat International Plc for Rs4b in August 2005. Incat specializes in engineering & design services and product lifecycle management in the international automotive, aerospace and engineering markets. With this acquisition, Tata Motors will have closer proximity to its global customers and be able to provide a wider range of services.</div><div><br /><strong>Tata Daewoo CV Ltd(TDCV</strong>): TDCV is a 100% subsidiary of the Tata Motors based in South Korea, which was acquired in March 2004. TDCV is in the business of manufacture and sale of heavy commercial vehicles.Tata Daewoo is Tata Motors’ 100% subsidiary in Korea, with a market share of 30%.Tata Motors will use the Daewoo technology to introduce higher tonnage trucks in the Indian market and use Tata Daewoo for exports globally. In line with this strategy, it has already introduced the Novus, a high-end tipper developed by Tata Daewoo for the Indian market.</div><div></div><div></div><div><br /><strong>Tata Projects<br />TCE Consulting Engineers<br />Telco Construction Equipment Company<br />TRF<br /></strong><a title="Voltas" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltas"><strong>Voltas</strong></a><strong><br /></strong><a id="Materials" name="Materials"></a><br /><span style="color:#ff6666;">Materials<br /></span>Tata Advanced Materials<br /><a title="Tata Steel" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Steel">Tata Steel</a> (formerly TISCO, Tata Iron and Steel Company Ltd) is India's first private Iron and Steel Company, and also the first company founded by J.N. Tata (the founder of the Tata Group). Its works are located at <a title="Jamshedpur" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamshedpur">Jamshedpur</a>, with headquarters at <a title="Mumbai" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mumbai">Mumbai</a>.<br />On January 30, 2007 the Tata Steel clinched a deal to buy the UK based <a class="new" title="Corus Group Plc." href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Corus_Group_Plc.&action=edit">Corus Group Plc.</a>, one of the world's leading steel and aluminium producers, for £6.7 billion, beating CSN in a fast-paced auction to create the world’s fifth largest steelmaker. The company emerged victorious with a bid of 608p a share, topping a 603p a share offer from Brazil’s Companhia Siderurgica Nacional (CSN), after an unprecedented nine rounds of bidding overseen by the UK’s Takeover Panel. The £6.7 billion deal includes £500 million of debt.<br />The acquisition of Corus steel is recognized as the biggest ever acquisition involving an Indian company.<br /><a class="new" title="Tata Tinplate" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tata_Tinplate&action=edit">Tata Tinplate</a> is the most profitably run tinning line in India with a state of the art facilities.<br /><a id="Energy" name="Energy"></a><br /><span style="color:#ff6666;">Energy</span><br /><a title="Tata Power" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Power">Tata Power</a> is one of the largest private sector power companies. It supplies power to Mumbai, the commercial capital of India and parts of New Delhi.<br /><a id="Chemicals" name="Chemicals"></a><br /><span style="color:#ff6666;">Chemicals<br /></span>Rallis India<br /><a title="Tata Chemicals" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Chemicals">Tata Chemicals</a><br />Tata Pigments<br /><a id="Services" name="Services"></a><br /><span style="color:#ff6666;">Services<br /></span><a title="The Indian Hotels Company" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Indian_Hotels_Company">The Indian Hotels Company</a><br />THDC<br />Tata-AIG General Insurance<br />Tata-AIG Life Insurance<br />Tata Asset Management<br />Tata Economic Consultancy Services<br />Tata Financial Services<br />Tata Investment Corporation<br />Tata Quality Management Services<br />Tata Share Registry<br />Tata Strategic Management Group (TSMG) is one of the largest consulting firms in South Asia.<br />Tata Services<br /></div><br /><div><span style="color:#ff6666;">Consumer Products<br /></span>Tata Ceramics<br /><a title="McGraw Hill" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McGraw_Hill">Tata McGraw Hill</a> Publishing Company<br /><a title="Tata Tea Limited" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Tea_Limited">Tata Tea Limited</a> is the world's second largest manufacturer of packaged tea and tea products. It also owns the <a title="Tetley" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetley">Tetley</a> brand of tea sold primarily in Europe.<br /><a title="Titan Industries" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan_Industries">Titan Industries</a> manufacturers of <a title="Titan (watches)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan_(watches)">Titan (watches)</a><br /><a title="Trent (Westside)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trent_(Westside)">Trent (Westside)</a><br /><a title="Tata Sky" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Sky">Tata Sky</a><br /><a id="Information_systems_and_communications" name="Information_systems_and_communications"></a><br /><span style="color:#ff6666;">Information systems and communications</span><br />Computational Research Laboratories (CRL)<br />INCAT<br />Nelco<br />Nelito Systems<br />SerWizSol<br /><a title="Tata Consultancy Services Ltd." href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Consultancy_Services_Ltd.">Tata Consultancy Services Ltd.</a> (TCS) is Asia's largest software company with 2005-06 revenues being over US$ 2.97 bn. Merged with Tata Infotech.<br /><a title="Tata Elxsi" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Elxsi">Tata Elxsi</a> is another Software and Industrial design company of the Tata stable. Based in Bangalore. One of the leading companies in the animation industry of India.<br /><a title="Tata Interactive Systems" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Interactive_Systems">Tata Interactive Systems</a><br /><a title="Tata Technologies Limited" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Technologies_Limited">Tata Technologies Limited</a><br />Tata Teleservices<br />Tatanet<br /><a title="VSNL" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VSNL">VSNL</a>, the Indian telecom giant, was acquired in <a title="2002" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002">2002</a>. Tata-owned VSNL acquired Bermuda-based (former Canadian crown corporation and Montreal-based) <a title="Teleglobe" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleglobe">Teleglobe</a> in <a title="2005" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005">2005</a><br /><a id="The_Tata_logo" name="The_Tata_logo"></a><br /><span style="color:#ff6666;">The Tata logo</span><br />The now ubiquitous blue-coloured Tata logo was designed by the <a title="Wolff Olins" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolff_Olins">Wolff Olins</a> consultancy. The logo was meant to signify fluidity; it may also be seen as a fountain of knowledge, also as a tree of trust under which people can take refuge.</div><br /><div><br /><span style="color:#ff6666;">Educational institutes opened by Tata Group</span><br />"Tata Institute of Science" now renamed to <a title="Indian Institute of Science" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Institute_of_Science">Indian Institute of Science</a>, <a title="Banglore" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banglore">Banglore</a>, <a title="India" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India">India</a><br /><a class="external text" title="http://www.tifr.res.in/scripts/homepage.php" href="http://www.tifr.res.in/scripts/homepage.php" rel="nofollow">Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, a deemed university</a><br />Tata Management Training Centre, <a title="Pune" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pune">Pune</a>, <a title="India" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India">India</a><br /><a class="external text" title="http://www.tiss.edu/" href="http://www.tiss.edu/" rel="nofollow">Tata Institute of Social Sciences, a deemed university</a><br /><a class="external text" title="http://www.tata.com/0_our_commitment/community_initiatives/arts/ncpa.htm" href="http://www.tata.com/0_our_commitment/community_initiatives/arts/ncpa.htm" rel="nofollow">National Centre for the Performing Arts</a> </div>कविताhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00210732358968428325noreply@blogger.com0